Psychology 10th Edition
Douglas A. Bernstein, Louis A. Penner, Alison Clarke-Stewart and Edward J. Roy
Contents
PREFACE xv
1 Introducing Psychology 2
Th e World of Psychology: An Overview 4
Subfi elds of Psychology 5
Linkages Within Psychology and Beyond 10
Research: Th e Foundation of Psychology 12
A Brief History of Psychology 14
Approaches to the Science of Psychology 18
The Biological Approach 19
The Evolutionary Approach 20
The Psychodynamic Approach 20
The Behavioral Approach 21
The Cognitive Approach 22
The Humanistic Approach 22
Human Diversity and Psychology 24
The Impact of Sociocultural Diversity on Psychology 24
SUMMARY 27
2 Research in Psychology 30
Th inking Critically About Psychology (or Anything Else) 32
Critical Thinking and Scientifi c Research 34
The Role of Theories 35
Research Methods in Psychology 36
Observational Methods: Watching Behavior 37
Case Studies: Taking a Closer Look 38
Surveys: Looking at the Big Picture 39
Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships 41
Experiments: Exploring Cause and Effect 42
Selecting Human Participants for Research 45
LINKAGES: Psychological Research Methods and Behavioral
Genetics 47
Statistical Analysis of Research Results 51
Descriptive Statistics 51
Inferential Statistics 55
Statistics and Research Methods as Tools in Critical
Th inking 55
Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists 57
LINKAGES 59 • SUMMARY 59
3 Biological Aspects of Psychology 62
Th e Nervous System 65
Cells of the Nervous System 65
Action Potentials 66
Synapses and Communication Between Neurons 68
Organization and Functions of the Nervous System 70
Th e Peripheral Nervous System: Keeping in Touch
with the World 71
Th e Somatic Nervous System 71
Th e Autonomic Nervous System 72
Th e Central Nervous System: Making Sense of the World 72
Th e Spinal Cord 73
Th e Brain 73
THINKING CRITICALLY: What Can fMRI Tell Us About Behavior
and Mental Processes? 76
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Manipulating Genes
in Animal Models of Human Disease 84
Th e Cerebral Cortex 86
Th e Divided Brain in a Unified Self 91
Plasticity in the Central Nervous System 94
LINKAGES: Human Development and the Changing Brain 96
Th e Chemistry of Psychology 99
Th ree Classes of Neurotransmitters 99
Th e Endocrine System: Coordinating the Internal World 102
LINKAGES 105 • SUMMARY 105
4 Sensation 108
Sensory Systems 110
Th e Problem of Encoding 111
LINKAGES: Sensation and Biological Aspects of
Psychology 112
Hearing 113
Sound 113
Th e Ear 115
Auditory Pathways, Representations, and Experiences 117
Coding Intensity and Frequency 119
Vision 120
Light 121
Focusing Light 121
Converting Light into Images 123
Visual Pathways 126
Visual Representations 126
Seeing Color 129
Interaction of the Senses: Synesthesia 133
Th e Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste 135
Olfaction 136
Gustation 138
Smell, Taste, and Flavor 140
Cutaneous Senses and the Vestibular System 141
Touch and Temperature 141
Pain 143
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Acupuncture Relieve Pain? 147
Proprioception: Sensing Body Position 149
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Th e Case of the
Mysterious Spells 151
LINKAGES 153 • SUMMARY 153
5 Perception 156
Th e Perception Paradox 157
Th ree Approaches to Perception 158
Psychophysics 159
Absolute Th resholds: Is Something Out Th ere? 160
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Subliminal Stimuli Influence Your
Behavior? 161
Signal Detection Theory 162
Judging Differences: Has Anything Changed? 164
Magnitude Estimation: How Intense Is Th at? 165
Organizing the Perceptual World 167
Basic Processes in Perceptual Organization 167
Perception of Location and Distance 169
Perception of Motion 173
Perceptual Constancy 174
Recognizing the Perceptual World 176
Bottom-Up Processing 177
Top-Down Processing 179
Network Processing 180
Culture, Experience, and Perception 181
LINKAGES: Perception and Human Development 182
Attention 184
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: An Experiment in “Mind
Reading” 185
Directing Attention 186
Ignoring Information 187
Divided Attention 187
Attention and Automatic Processing 189
Attention and the Brain 189
Applications of Research on Perception 189
Aviation Psychology 189
Human-Computer Interaction 190
Traffi c Safety 191
LINKAGES 192 • SUMMARY 193
6 Learning 196
Learning About Stimuli 198
Classical Conditioning: Learning Signals and Associations 200
Pavlov’s Discovery 200
Conditioned Responses over Time:
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 202
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 203
Th e Signaling of Signifi cant Events 203
Some Applications of Classical Conditioning 206
Operant Conditioning: Learning the Consequences
of Behavior 207
From the Puzzle Box to the Skinner Box 207
Basic Components of Operant Conditioning 208
Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior 212
Why Reinforcers Work 216
Punishment 217
Some Applications of Operant Conditioning 219
LINKAGES: Neural Networks and Learning 221
Cognitive Processes in Learning 222
Learned Helplessness 223
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: An Experiment on Human
Helplessness 223
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 225
Insight and Learning 226
Observational Learning: Learning by Imitation 227
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Watching Violence on Television
Make People More Violent? 229
Using Research on Learning to Help People Learn 232
Classrooms Across Cultures 232
Active Learning 233
Skill Learning 234
LINKAGES 235 • SUMMARY 236
7 Memory 240
Th e Nature of Memory 241
Basic Memory Processes 241
Types of Memory 242
Explicit and Implicit Memory 243
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Measuring Explicit Versus
Implicit Memory 244
Models of Memory 245
Storing New Memories 249
Sensory Memory 249
Short-Term Memory and Working Memory 250
Long-Term Memory 253
Distinguishing Between Short-Term and Long-Term
Memory 255
Retrieving Memories 256
Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specifi city 256
Context and State Dependence 257
Retrieval from Semantic Memory 258
Constructing Memories 259
LINKAGES: Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness
Testimony 261
Forgetting 264
How Do We Forget? 264
Why Do We Forget? Th e Roles of Decay and
Interference 265
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Traumatic Memories Be
Repressed and Th en Recovered? 267
Biological Bases of Memory 271
Th e Biochemistry of Memory 271
Brain Structures and Memory 272
Applications of Memory Research 276
Improving Your Memory 276
Design for Memory 279
LINKAGES 280 • SUMMARY 280
8 Cognition and Language 284
Basic Functions of Th ought 285
Th e Circle of Th ought 286
Measuring Information Processing 288
Mental Representations: Th e Ingredients of
Th ought 290
Concepts 291
Propositions 292
Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models 292
Images and Cognitive Maps 294
Th inking Strategies 295
Formal Reasoning 295
Informal Reasoning 297
Problem Solving 300
Strategies for Problem Solving 300
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Locating Analogical Th inking 302
Obstacles to Problem Solving 303
Building Problem-Solving Skills 306
Problem Solving by Computer 308
Decision Making 309
Evaluating Options 310
Comparing Attributes 310
Biases and Flaws in Decision Making 310
LINKAGES: Group Processes in Problem Solving
and Decision Making 312
Language 314
Th e Elements of Language 315
Understanding Speech 316
Th e Development of Language 318
How Is Language Acquired? 320
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Nonhumans Use
Language? 322
Culture, Language, and Th ought 325
LINKAGES 327 • SUMMARY 327
9 Consciousness 330
Analyzing Consciousness 332
Th e Functions of Consciousness 333
Levels of Consciousness 333
Mental Processing Without Awareness 334
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Subliminal Messages in
Popular Music 336
Th e Neuropsychology of Consciousness 338
Consciousness States 338
Sleeping and Dreaming 339
Stages of Sleep 340
Why Do People Sleep? 343
Sleep Disorders 346
Dreams and Dreaming 349
Hypnosis 351
Experiencing Hypnosis 351
Explaining Hypnosis 352
Applications of Hypnosis 353
LINKAGES: Meditation, Health, and Stress 354
Psychoactive Drugs 355
Psychopharmacology 355
Th e Varying Eff ects of Drugs 356
CNS Depressant Drugs 358
CNS Stimulating Drugs 360
Hallucinogenic Drugs 363
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Marijuana Dangerous? 364
LINKAGES 368 • SUMMARY 368
10 Cognitive Abilities 372
Testing for Intelligence 374
A Brief History of Intelligence Tests 374
Intelligence Tests Today 376
Aptitude and Achievement Measures 378
Measuring the Quality of Tests 379
Statistical Reliability 379
Statistical Validity 380
Evaluating Intelligence Tests 381
Th e Statistical Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests 381
LINKAGES: Emotionality and the Measurement of Cognitive
Abilities 383
Innate and Environmental Infl uences on IQ 384
Group Diff erences in IQ 386
Conditions Th at Can Raise IQ 388
IQ in the Classroom 390
THINKING CRITICALLY: Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased
Against Certain Groups? 391
Understanding Intelligence 393
Th e Psychometric Approach 394
Th e Information-Processing Model 395
Th e Triarchic Th eory of Intelligence 396
Multiple Intelligences 398
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Tracking Cognitive Abilities
over the Life Span 400
Diversity in Cognitive Abilities 402
Creativity 403
Unusual Cognitive Ability 404
LINKAGES 407 • SUMMARY 408
11 Motivation and Emotion 412
Concepts and Th eories of Motivation 413
Sources of Motivation 414
Th e Instinct Doctrine and Its Descendants 415
Drive Reduction Th eory 417
Arousal Th eory 418
Incentive Th eory 418
Hunger and Eating 420
Biological Signals for Hunger and Satiation 420
Hunger and the Brain 422
Flavor, Sociocultural Experience, and Food
Selection 423
Unhealthy Eating 424
Sexual Behavior 428
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: A Survey of Human Sexual
Behavior 429
Th e Biology of Sex 430
Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality 432
Sexual Orientation 433
THINKING CRITICALLY: What Shapes Sexual Orientation? 433
Achievement Motivation 436
Need for Achievement 436
Goal Setting and Achievement Motivation 438
Achievement and Success in the Workplace 439
Achievement and Well-Being 440
Relations and Confl icts Among Motives 441
LINKAGES: Confl icting Motives and Stress 443
Opponent Processes, Motivation, and Emotion 444
Th e Nature of Emotion 444
Defi ning Characteristics 444
Th e Biology of Emotion 446
Th eories of Emotion 449
James’s Peripheral Th eory 449
Cannon’s Central Th eory 453
Cognitive Th eories of Emotion 453
Communicating Emotion 456
Innate Expressions of Emotion 456
Social and Cultural Infl uences on Emotional Expression 457
LINKAGES 460 • SUMMARY 460
12 Human Development 464
Exploring Human Development 465
Beginnings 468
Prenatal Development 468
Th e Newborn 470
Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development 472
Changes in the Brain 472
Th e Development of Knowledge: Piaget’s Th eory 472
Modifying Piaget’s Th eory 476
Information Processing During Childhood 478
LINKAGES: Development and Memory 480
Culture and Cognitive Development 481
Improving or Endangering Cognitive
Development 482
Infancy and Childhood: Social and Emotional
Development 484
Individual Temperament 484
Attachment 486
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Day Care Harm the Emotional
Development of Infants? 488
Relationships with Parents 490
Peer Friendships and Popularity 493
Social Skills and Understanding 494
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Exploring Developing
Minds 495
Gender Roles 496
Risk and Resilience 500
Adolescence 500
Changes in Body, Brain, and Th inking 500
Adolescent Feelings and Behavior 501
Identity and Development of the Self 505
Moral Development 506
Emerging Adulthood 508
Adulthood 509
Physical Changes 509
Cognitive Changes 509
Social Changes 512
Death and Dying 516
Developmental Trajectories 517
Longevity: Th e Length of Life 517
LINKAGES 518 • SUMMARY 518
13 Health, Stress, and Coping 522
Health Psychology 523
Understanding Stress and Stressors 525
Psychological Stressors 526
Measuring Stressors 526
Stress Responses 527
Physical Responses 528
Psychological Responses 530
LINKAGES: Stress and Psychological Disorders 532
Stress Mediators 534
How Stressors Are Perceived 534
Predictability and Control 535
Coping Resources and Coping Methods 536
Social Support 537
Stress, Personality, and Gender 540
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Personality and
Health 541
Th e Physiology and Psychology of Health and
Illness 543
Stress, Illness, and the Immune System 543
Stress, Illness, and the Cardiovascular System 545
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Hostility Increase the Risk of Heart
Disease? 545
Promoting Healthy Behavior 547
Health Beliefs and Health Behaviors 548
Changing Health Behaviors: Stages of Readiness 549
Programs for Coping with Stress and Promoting
Health 550
LINKAGES 552 • SUMMARY 552
14 Personality 556
Th e Psychodynamic Approach 558
Th e Structure and Development of Personality 558
Variations on Freud’s Personality Th eory 561
Contemporary Psychodynamic Th eories 562
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach 563
Th e Trait Approach 564
Allport’s Trait Th eory 566
Th e Five-Factor Personality Model 567
Biological Trait Th eories 568
THINKING CRITICALLY: Are Personality Traits Inherited? 570
Evaluating the Trait Approach 572
Th e Social-Cognitive Approach 573
Roots of the Social-Cognitive Approach 573
Prominent Social-Cognitive Th eories 574
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Approach 576
Th e Humanistic Psychology Approach 577
Prominent Humanistic Th eories 578
Evaluating the Humanistic Psychology Approach 580
LINKAGES: Personality, Culture, and Human Development 581
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Longitudinal Studies of
Temperament and Personality 583
Assessing Personality 585
Projective Personality Measures 586
Nonprojective Personality Measures 586
Personality Tests and Employee Selection 588
LINKAGES 590 • SUMMARY 591
15 Psychological Disorders 594
Defi ning Psychological Disorders 596
What Is Abnormal? 597
Behavior in Context: A Practical Approach 598
Explaining Psychological Disorders 598
Th e Biopsychosocial Approach 599
Diathesis-Stress as an Integrative Explanation 602
Classifying Psychological Disorders 603
A Classifi cation System: DSM-IV-TR 604
Evaluating the Diagnostic System 606
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Psychological Diagnosis
Biased? 607
Anxiety Disorders 610
Types of Anxiety Disorders 610
Causes of Anxiety Disorders 612
LINKAGES: Anxiety Disorders and Learning 614
Somatoform Disorders 616
Dissociative Disorders 618
Aff ective Disorders 620
Depressive Disorders 620
Bipolar Disorders 623
Causes of Aff ective Disorders 624
Schizophrenia 627
Symptoms of Schizophrenia 627
Categorizing Schizophrenia 629
Causes of Schizophrenia 631
Personality Disorders 633
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Exploring Links Between Child
Abuse and Antisocial Personality Disorder 636
A Sampling of Other Psychological Disorders 638
Psychological Disorders of Childhood 638
Substance-Related Disorders 640
Mental Illness and the Law 643
LINKAGES 645 • SUMMARY 646
16 Treatment of Psychological Disorders 650
Basic Features of Treatment 651
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy 653
Classical Psychoanalysis 653
Contemporary Variations on Psychoanalysis 655
Humanistic Psychotherapy 656
Client-Centered Th erapy 657
Gestalt Th erapy 659
Behavior Th erapy 659
Techniques for Modifying Behavior 661
Cognitive Behavior Th erapy 665
Group, Family, and Couples Th erapy 667
Group Th erapy 667
Family and Couples Th erapy 669
Evaluating Psychotherapy 671
THINKING CRITICALLY: Are All Forms of Th erapy Equally
Eff ective? 673
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Which Th erapies Work
Best for Which Problems? 674
Sociocultural Factors in Psychotherapy 678
Rules and Rights in the Th erapeutic Relationship 680
Biological Treatments 681
Psychosurgery 682
Electroconvulsive Shock Th erapy 682
Psychoactive Drugs 683
Evaluating Psychoactive Drug Treatments 687
Drugs and Psychotherapy 688
LINKAGES: Biological Aspects of Psychology and the Treatment of
Psychological Disorders 689
Community Psychology: From Treatment to
Prevention 690
LINKAGES 692 • SUMMARY 692
17 Social Cognition 696
Social Infl uences on the Self 697
Social Comparison 697
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Self-Esteem and the Ultimate
Terror 699
Social Identity Th eory 700
Social Perception 701
Th e Role of Schemas 701
First Impressions 702
Explaining Behavior: Attribution 704
Errors in Attribution 706
Th e Self-Protective Functions of Social Cognition 707
Attitudes 708
Th e Structure of Attitudes 708
Forming Attitudes 709
Changing Attitudes 710
LINKAGES: Biological and Social Psychology 713
Prejudice and Stereotypes 714
Th eories of Prejudice and Stereotyping 715
Reducing Prejudice 717
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Ethnic Prejudice Too Ingrained Ever to
Be Eliminated? 718
Interpersonal Attraction 720
Keys to Attraction 720
Intimate Relationships and Love 721
LINKAGES 725 • SUMMARY 725
18 Social Infl uence 728
Social Infl uence 729
LINKAGES: Motivation and the Presence of Others 730
Conformity and Compliance 732
Th e Role of Social Norms 733
Why Do People Conform? 734
When Do People Conform? 734
Creating Compliance 736
Obedience 737
Factors Aff ecting Obedience 739
Evaluating Milgram’s Studies 741
Aggression 743
Why Are People Aggressive? 743
THINKING CRITICALLY: Do Violent Video Games Make People
More Aggressive? 746
When Are People Aggressive? 748
Altruism and Helping Behavior 751
Why Do People Help? 752
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Does Family Matter? 756
Cooperation, Competition, and Confl ict 758
Social Dilemmas 758
Promoting Cooperation 760
Interpersonal Confl ict 761
Group Processes 762
Group Leadership 762
Groupthink 764
LINKAGES 765 • SUMMARY 765
19 Industrial and Organizational Psychology 768
An Overview of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology 769
Assessing People, Jobs, and Job Performance 770
Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other Characteristics 770
Job Analysis 771
Measuring Employee Characteristics 772
Measuring Job Performance 774
Methods of Performance Appraisal 775
Recruiting and Selecting Employees 777
Recruitment Processes 777
Selection Processes 779
Legal Issues in Recruitment and Selection 779
Training Employees 780
Assessing Training Needs 780
Designing Training Programs 781
Evaluating Training Programs 782
Employee Motivation 783
ERG Th eory 784
Expectancy Th eory 784
Goal-Setting Th eory 785
Job Satisfaction 785
Measuring Job Satisfaction 785
Factors Aff ecting Job Satisfaction 786
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Job Satisfaction
Genetic? 788
Consequences of Job Satisfaction 790
LINKAGES: Aggression in the Workplace 792
Occupational Health Psychology 792
Physical Conditions Aff ecting Health 792
Work Schedules, Health, and Safety 794
Stress, Accidents, and Safety 795
Work Groups and Work Teams 795
Autonomous Work Groups 796
Group Leadership 797
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Can People Learn to Be
Charismatic Leaders? 799
LINKAGES 800 • SUMMARY 801
20 Neuropsychology 804
Foundations of Neuropyschology 805
A Brief History of Neuropsychology 807
Modules and Networks 808
Lesion Analysis 809
Neuropsychological Assessment 810
Training for Neuropsychology 811
Mechanisms of Brain Dysfunction 811
Cerebrovascular Accidents 811
Traumatic Brain Injury 812
Neurodegenerative Diseases 813
Neuropsychological Disorders 813
Amnestic Disorders 813
Consciousness Disturbances 816
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Someone Be Partially Paralyzed
and Not Know It? 817
Perceptual Disturbances 819
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Studying Hemineglect 822
LINKAGES: Language Disorders and the Brain 823
Movement Disorders 825
Dementia 826
LINKAGES 829 • SUMMARY 830
APPENDIX A: Answers to In Review Questions A-1
APPENDIX B: Behavioral Genetics
(Th is appendix is available online on the student Web site.) A-5
APPENDIX C: Statistics in Psychological Research
(Th is appendix is available online on the student Web site.) A-13
REFERENCES R1
NAME INDEX N1
SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY S1