Textile Handbook
By The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association
Brief Content:
Chapter 1 Textile Fibres
Chapter 2 Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Charter 3 Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Chapter 4 Knitting and Knitted Fabrics
Chapter 5 Textile Coloration and Finishing Treatments
Chapter 6 Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Appendix 1 Business Strategies for the Textile and Apparel
Appendix 2 Web Sites Related To Textiles
Appendix 3 The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association 2000/2001
Member List
Appendix 4 The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association
Committee Members of 2000/2001
Appendix 5 Chairman and Vice Chairman List of the Hong Kong
Cotton Spinners Association
Details Contents:
Chapter 1
Textile Fibres ………………………………….. 1-2
Section 1 Fibres Commonly Used for Texilies and Clothing 1-2
1.1 Classification of Textile Fibres ……………………………………. 1-2
1.2 Natural Fibres …………………………………………………………… 1-2
1.2.1 Cotton ………………………………………………………………….. 1-2
1.2.2 Flax (Linen) ………………………………………………………….. 1-4
1.2.3 Jute ……………………………………………………………………… 1-5
1.2.4 Ramie ………………………………………………………………….. 1-5
1.2.5 Silk ……………………………………………………………………… 1-5
1.2.6 Wool ……………………………………………………………………. 1-6
1.2.7 Hair ……………………………………………………………………… 1-7
1.2.8 Asbestos ………………………………………………………………. 1-8
1.3 Man-made Fibres ………………………………………………………. 1-9
1.3.1 Acetate …………………………………………………………………. 1-9
1.3.2 Acrylic …………………………………………………………………. 1-9
1.3.3 Nylon …………………………………………………………………… 1-10
1.3.4 Polyester ………………………………………………………………. 1-10
1.3.5 Rayon (Viscose Rayon) ………………………………………….. 1-11
1.3.6 Spandex ……………………………………………………………….. 1-12
1.3.7 Olefin …………………………………………………………………… 1-13
1.4 Microscopic Appearance of Common Textile Fibres ……. 1-14
Section 2 Fibre Properties ………………………………………………… 1-18
2.1 Desirable Fibre Properties …………………………………………. 1-18
2.1.1 Fibre length ………………………………………………………….. 1-18
2.1.2 Cross-sectional shape and surface ……………………………. 1-18
2.1.3 Straightness ………………………………………………………….. 1-18
2.1.4 Strength ……………………………………………………………….. 1-18
2.1.5 Extensibility and elasticity ……………………………………… 1-18
2.1.6 Hand feel ……………………………………………………………… 1-19
2.1.7 Plasticity ………………………………………………………………. 1-19
2.1.8 Absorbency ………………………………………………………….. 1-19
2.1.9 Abrasion resistance ……………………………………………….. 1-19
2.1.10 Resiliency …………………………………………………………….. 1-19
2.1.11 Lustre …………………………………………………………………… 1-19
2.1.12 Density ………………………………………………………………… 1-19
2.1.13 Wicking ……………………………………………………………….. 1-20
2.2 Important Characteristics and Major End-use of Textile
Fibres ………………………………………………………………………… 1-21
2.3 Examples of Commercial Names and Manufacturers of
Man-Made Fibres ……………………………………………………… 1-25
2.4 Properties of Major Textile Fibres ……………………………… 1-30
2.5 Chemical Resistance of Fibres ……………………………………. 1-31
Section 3 Types of Cotton …………………………………………………. 1-32
3.1 Kinds and Types of Cotton …………………………………………. 1-32
3.1.1 The Features and Characteristics of the Three
Principal Cotton Fibre Groups ………………………………… 1-33
3.1.2 Structure and Properties of Cotton Fibre ………………….. 1-34
3.1.3 Composition of Cotton Fibre …………………………………… 1-35
3.1.4 Chemical Composition of Cotton Fibre …………………….. 1-35
3.1.5 Physical Properties of Cotton Fibre (Upland Cotton) …. 1-36
3.1.6 Chemical Properties of Cotton Fibre ………………………… 1-37
3.2 Classification of Cotton ……………………………………………… 1-38
3.2.1 Classification of Upland Cotton ………………………………. 1-38
3.3 Cotton Species …………………………………………………………… 1-44
3.3.1 Upland Cotton ………………………………………………………. 1-45
3.3.2 Sea-island Cotton ………………………………………………….. 1-45
3.3.3 Peruvian Cotton …………………………………………………….. 1-45
3.3.4 Asiatic Rough Cotton …………………………………………….. 1-45
3.3.5 Tree Cotton …………………………………………………………… 1-45
3.4 World Cotton Classification and Standard …………………. 1-46
3.5 Chinese Cotton Specification ……………………………………… 1-47
3.5.1 Chinese Cotton Grading …………………………………………. 1-47 .
3.5.2 Length …………………………………………………………………. 1-48
3.6 Indian Cotton Grading ………………………………………………. 1-50
3.7 Pakistan Cotton Grading …………………………………………… 1-51
3.8 Influence of the Fibre Characteristics of the Yarn ………. 1-51
3.9 Other Disturbing Factors in the Yarn Manufacturing
Process ………………………………………………………………………. 1-53
3.9.1 Stickiness ……………………………………………………………… 1-53
3.9.2 Cotton Contamination ……………………………………………. 1-55
3.10 Relationship between Fibre Length, Fineness and Yarn
Count to be Spun ………………………………………………………. 1-64
Section 4 World Cotton Production ………………………………….. 1-65
4.1 World Cotton Production and Related Statistics …………. 1-65
4.2 The World’s Major Cotton Growing Areas …………………. 1-73
4.2.1 China …………………………………………………………………… 1-74
4.2.2 United States ………………………………………………………… 1-75
4.2.3 India …………………………………………………………………….. 1-76
4.2.4 Pakistan ……………………………………………………………….. 1-77
4.2.5 Australia ………………………………………………………………. 1-78
4.2.6 Republic of Uzbekistan ………………………………………….. 1-79
Section 5 Man-Made Fibre Production …………………………….. 1-80
5.1 Methods of Man-Made Fibre Spinning ………………………. 1-80
5.1.1 Wet Spinning ………………………………………………………… 1-80
5.1.2 Dry Spinning ………………………………………………………… 1-81
5.1.3 Melt Spinning ……………………………………………………….. 1-81
5.1.4 Gel Spinning …………………………………………………………. 1-83
5.2 The Processing of Tow ……………………………………………….. 1-84
Section 6 New Developement of Textile Fibres ………………….. 1-85
6.1 Microfibres ……………………………………………………………….. 1-85
6.1.1 Direct Spinning …………………………………………………….. 1-85
6.1.2 Splittable Fibres ……………………………………………………. 1-85
6.1.3 Mechanically Splittable Bicomponents …………………….. 1-86
6.1.4 Solvent Splittable Bicomponents …………………………….. 1-86
6.1.5 Uses for Microfibres ……………………………………………… 1-86
6.1.6 Shin-Gosen …………………………………………………………… 1-88
6.2 Lyocell ………………………………………………………………………. 1-89
6.2.1 TENCEL® …………………………… 1-89
6.2.2 TENCEL® A100 ……………………………………………………. 1-92
6.3 High Performance Fibres …………………………………………… 1-93
6.3.1 Aramids, Meta-aramid …………………………………………… 1-93
6.3.2 Para-aramid ………………………………………………………….. 1-94
6.3.3 Carbon Fibres — PAN and Pitch Based ……………………. 1-94
6.3.4 Fluorocarbon Fibres (PTFE) …………………………………… 1-94
6.3.5 Glass Fibre …………………………………………………………… 1-95
6.3.6 Melamine ……………………………………………………………… 1-95
6.3.7 Polybenzimidazole — PBI ……………………………………… 1-95
6.3.8 Polyphenylenebenzobisoxazole — PBO1 …………………. 1-96
6.3.9 Cellulose acetate – MicroSafe …………………………………. 1-96
6.3.10 Optical Fibres ……………………………………………………….. 1-96
6.3.11 Chitin, Chitosan (shells of crustacean) ……………………… 1-97
6.4 Smart Technology for Textiles and Clothing ……………….. 1-97
6.4.1 Phase-Transition Materials and Polymer Crystals ……… 1-98
6.4.2 Smart Microcapsules/Microspheres …………………………. 1-98
6.4.3 Smart Fibres for Measurement of Temperature,
Moisture and Strain ……………………………………………….. 1-99
6.4.4 Shape Memory Polymers ……………………………………….. 1-99
6.4.5 Smart Gels and Gel Fibres ……………………………………… 1-100
Textile Fibres ………………………………….. 1-2
Section 1 Fibres Commonly Used for Texilies and Clothing 1-2
1.1 Classification of Textile Fibres ……………………………………. 1-2
1.2 Natural Fibres …………………………………………………………… 1-2
1.2.1 Cotton ………………………………………………………………….. 1-2
1.2.2 Flax (Linen) ………………………………………………………….. 1-4
1.2.3 Jute ……………………………………………………………………… 1-5
1.2.4 Ramie ………………………………………………………………….. 1-5
1.2.5 Silk ……………………………………………………………………… 1-5
1.2.6 Wool ……………………………………………………………………. 1-6
1.2.7 Hair ……………………………………………………………………… 1-7
1.2.8 Asbestos ………………………………………………………………. 1-8
1.3 Man-made Fibres ………………………………………………………. 1-9
1.3.1 Acetate …………………………………………………………………. 1-9
1.3.2 Acrylic …………………………………………………………………. 1-9
1.3.3 Nylon …………………………………………………………………… 1-10
1.3.4 Polyester ………………………………………………………………. 1-10
1.3.5 Rayon (Viscose Rayon) ………………………………………….. 1-11
1.3.6 Spandex ……………………………………………………………….. 1-12
1.3.7 Olefin …………………………………………………………………… 1-13
1.4 Microscopic Appearance of Common Textile Fibres ……. 1-14
Section 2 Fibre Properties ………………………………………………… 1-18
2.1 Desirable Fibre Properties …………………………………………. 1-18
2.1.1 Fibre length ………………………………………………………….. 1-18
2.1.2 Cross-sectional shape and surface ……………………………. 1-18
2.1.3 Straightness ………………………………………………………….. 1-18
2.1.4 Strength ……………………………………………………………….. 1-18
2.1.5 Extensibility and elasticity ……………………………………… 1-18
2.1.6 Hand feel ……………………………………………………………… 1-19
2.1.7 Plasticity ………………………………………………………………. 1-19
2.1.8 Absorbency ………………………………………………………….. 1-19
2.1.9 Abrasion resistance ……………………………………………….. 1-19
2.1.10 Resiliency …………………………………………………………….. 1-19
2.1.11 Lustre …………………………………………………………………… 1-19
2.1.12 Density ………………………………………………………………… 1-19
2.1.13 Wicking ……………………………………………………………….. 1-20
2.2 Important Characteristics and Major End-use of Textile
Fibres ………………………………………………………………………… 1-21
2.3 Examples of Commercial Names and Manufacturers of
Man-Made Fibres ……………………………………………………… 1-25
2.4 Properties of Major Textile Fibres ……………………………… 1-30
2.5 Chemical Resistance of Fibres ……………………………………. 1-31
Section 3 Types of Cotton …………………………………………………. 1-32
3.1 Kinds and Types of Cotton …………………………………………. 1-32
3.1.1 The Features and Characteristics of the Three
Principal Cotton Fibre Groups ………………………………… 1-33
3.1.2 Structure and Properties of Cotton Fibre ………………….. 1-34
3.1.3 Composition of Cotton Fibre …………………………………… 1-35
3.1.4 Chemical Composition of Cotton Fibre …………………….. 1-35
3.1.5 Physical Properties of Cotton Fibre (Upland Cotton) …. 1-36
3.1.6 Chemical Properties of Cotton Fibre ………………………… 1-37
3.2 Classification of Cotton ……………………………………………… 1-38
3.2.1 Classification of Upland Cotton ………………………………. 1-38
3.3 Cotton Species …………………………………………………………… 1-44
3.3.1 Upland Cotton ………………………………………………………. 1-45
3.3.2 Sea-island Cotton ………………………………………………….. 1-45
3.3.3 Peruvian Cotton …………………………………………………….. 1-45
3.3.4 Asiatic Rough Cotton …………………………………………….. 1-45
3.3.5 Tree Cotton …………………………………………………………… 1-45
3.4 World Cotton Classification and Standard …………………. 1-46
3.5 Chinese Cotton Specification ……………………………………… 1-47
3.5.1 Chinese Cotton Grading …………………………………………. 1-47 .
3.5.2 Length …………………………………………………………………. 1-48
3.6 Indian Cotton Grading ………………………………………………. 1-50
3.7 Pakistan Cotton Grading …………………………………………… 1-51
3.8 Influence of the Fibre Characteristics of the Yarn ………. 1-51
3.9 Other Disturbing Factors in the Yarn Manufacturing
Process ………………………………………………………………………. 1-53
3.9.1 Stickiness ……………………………………………………………… 1-53
3.9.2 Cotton Contamination ……………………………………………. 1-55
3.10 Relationship between Fibre Length, Fineness and Yarn
Count to be Spun ………………………………………………………. 1-64
Section 4 World Cotton Production ………………………………….. 1-65
4.1 World Cotton Production and Related Statistics …………. 1-65
4.2 The World’s Major Cotton Growing Areas …………………. 1-73
4.2.1 China …………………………………………………………………… 1-74
4.2.2 United States ………………………………………………………… 1-75
4.2.3 India …………………………………………………………………….. 1-76
4.2.4 Pakistan ……………………………………………………………….. 1-77
4.2.5 Australia ………………………………………………………………. 1-78
4.2.6 Republic of Uzbekistan ………………………………………….. 1-79
Section 5 Man-Made Fibre Production …………………………….. 1-80
5.1 Methods of Man-Made Fibre Spinning ………………………. 1-80
5.1.1 Wet Spinning ………………………………………………………… 1-80
5.1.2 Dry Spinning ………………………………………………………… 1-81
5.1.3 Melt Spinning ……………………………………………………….. 1-81
5.1.4 Gel Spinning …………………………………………………………. 1-83
5.2 The Processing of Tow ……………………………………………….. 1-84
Section 6 New Developement of Textile Fibres ………………….. 1-85
6.1 Microfibres ……………………………………………………………….. 1-85
6.1.1 Direct Spinning …………………………………………………….. 1-85
6.1.2 Splittable Fibres ……………………………………………………. 1-85
6.1.3 Mechanically Splittable Bicomponents …………………….. 1-86
6.1.4 Solvent Splittable Bicomponents …………………………….. 1-86
6.1.5 Uses for Microfibres ……………………………………………… 1-86
6.1.6 Shin-Gosen …………………………………………………………… 1-88
6.2 Lyocell ………………………………………………………………………. 1-89
6.2.1 TENCEL® …………………………… 1-89
6.2.2 TENCEL® A100 ……………………………………………………. 1-92
6.3 High Performance Fibres …………………………………………… 1-93
6.3.1 Aramids, Meta-aramid …………………………………………… 1-93
6.3.2 Para-aramid ………………………………………………………….. 1-94
6.3.3 Carbon Fibres — PAN and Pitch Based ……………………. 1-94
6.3.4 Fluorocarbon Fibres (PTFE) …………………………………… 1-94
6.3.5 Glass Fibre …………………………………………………………… 1-95
6.3.6 Melamine ……………………………………………………………… 1-95
6.3.7 Polybenzimidazole — PBI ……………………………………… 1-95
6.3.8 Polyphenylenebenzobisoxazole — PBO1 …………………. 1-96
6.3.9 Cellulose acetate – MicroSafe …………………………………. 1-96
6.3.10 Optical Fibres ……………………………………………………….. 1-96
6.3.11 Chitin, Chitosan (shells of crustacean) ……………………… 1-97
6.4 Smart Technology for Textiles and Clothing ……………….. 1-97
6.4.1 Phase-Transition Materials and Polymer Crystals ……… 1-98
6.4.2 Smart Microcapsules/Microspheres …………………………. 1-98
6.4.3 Smart Fibres for Measurement of Temperature,
Moisture and Strain ……………………………………………….. 1-99
6.4.4 Shape Memory Polymers ……………………………………….. 1-99
6.4.5 Smart Gels and Gel Fibres ……………………………………… 1-100
Chapter 2
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn 2-2
Section 1 Blowing Room Process ………………………………………. 2-2
1.1 Purpose of Blowing Room Process ……………………………… 2-2
1.2 Bale Opening …………………………………………………………….. 2-2
1.2.1 Features of some Automatic Bale Openers ……………….. 2-3
1.3 Cleaning ……………………………………………………………………. 2-5
1.3.1 Purpose of Cleaning ………………………………………………. 2-5
1.3.2 Feeding System …………………………………………………….. 2-5
1.3.3 Features of Some Cleaning Machines ………………………. 2-6
1.4 Blending ……………………………………………………………………. 2-9
1.4.1 Features of Mixer and Blender ………………………………… 2-9
1.5 Machine Arrangements ……………………………………………… 2-11
1.5.1 Examples of Machines Layout of Blowing Room ……… 2-11
1.6 Foreign Substance Detector ……………………………………….. 2-13
1.6.1 The Vision Shield (Jossi) ………………………………………… 2-14
1.6.2 Securomat (Truetzschler) ………………………………………… 2-15
1.6.3 Cotton Sorter RX-CS (Barco) …………………………………. 2-15
1.6.4 Optiscan (Uster) ……………………………………………………. 2-16
1.7 Maintenance Recommendations for Opening and
Cleaning Machines …………………………………………………….. 2-17
1.7.1 Maintenance of Opening Room/Opening Hoppers …….. 2-17
1.7.2 Maintenance of Cleaners ………………………………………… 2-19
1.8 Trouble Shooting for Opening and Cleaning Machines .. 2-20
Section 2 Carding Process ………………………………………………… 2-25
2.1 Purpose of Carding ……………………………………………………. 2-25
2.2 Carding Actions ………………………………………………………… 2-26
2.3 Card Feeding System …………………………………………………. 2-27
2.3.1 Rieter Aerofeed U …………………………………………………. 2-27
2.3.2 Rieter UNIstore A 77 ……………………………………………… 2-28
2.3.3 Truetzschler Tuft Feeder Directfeed DFK…………………. 2-29
2.3.4 Truetzschler Sensofeed …………………………………………… 2-30
2.3.5 Truetzschler Webfeed …………………………………………….. 2-30
2.4 Card Clothing ……………………………………………………………. 2-31
2.5 Card Clothing Specifications ……………………………………… 2-33
2.5.1 ECC Card Clothing ……………………………………………….. 2-33
2.5.2 Graf Card Clothing ………………………………………………… 2-36
2.5.3 Hollingsworth Card Clothing ………………………………….. 2-44
2.5.4 Kanai Card Clothing ……………………………………………… 2-48
2.7 Card Setting Recommendations …………………………………. 2-58
2.7.1 Conventional Revolving Flat Card …………………………… 2-58
2.7.2 Rieter C51 Card …………………………………………………….. 2-59
2.7.3 Truetzschler DK-803 Card ……………………………………… 2-60
2.8 Grinding ……………………………………………………………………. 2-61
2.8.1 Grinding Intervals …………………………………………………. 2-61
2.8.2 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS) …………………. 2-61
2.9 New Features on Carding Machine …………………………….. 2-66
2.9.1 Precision Flat Setting System (Truetzschler) …………….. 2-66
2.9.2 Flat Distance Measuring System ……………………………… 2-67
2.9.3 Webclean System (Truetzschler) ……………………………… 2-68
2.9.4 On-line Nep Counting (Truetzschler) ……………………….. 2-69
2.9.5 TREXplus (Rieter) ………………………………………………… 2-70
2.10 Tandem Card…………………………………………………………….. 2-71
2.10.1 The New Twin Cylinder Card-Crosrol CST ……………… 2-71
2.10.2 Technical Specification ………………………………………….. 2-72
2.11 Production Calculations …………………………………………….. 2-73
2.12 Conversion of Grain Weight and Sliver Count ……………. 2-74
2.13 Nep Counting ……………………………………………………………. 2-74
2.13.1 Three Different Ways of Nep Counting ……………………. 2-74
2.13.2 Nep Content of Card Web ………………………………………. 2-75
2.14 Uster AFIS N Application for Cotton Card
Maintenance ……………………………………………………………… 2-76
2.15 Maintenance Recommendations …………………………………. 2-77
2.15.1 Lubrication Schedule …………………………………………….. 2-77
2.15.2 Cleaning Procedures For High Production Carding
Equipment ……………………………………………………………. 2-77
2.16 Troubleshooting…………………………………………………………. 2-80
Section 3 Drawing Process ……………………………………………….. 2-85
3.1 Purpose of Drawing …………………………………………………… 2-85
3.2 Definition of Draft ……………………………………………………… 2-85
3.3 Drafting Zone Setting ………………………………………………… 2-87
3.3.1 Technological Main Draft Roll Settings ……………………. 2-87
3.3.2 Technological Break Draft Roll Setting ……………………. 2-88
3.3.3 Draft Rolls Setting …………………………………………………. 2-89
3.3.4 Examples for Drafting System Setting of Rieters
Draw Frame ………………………………………………………….. 2-91
3.4 Trumpet ……………………………………………………………………. 2-92
3.5 Sliver Can …………………………………………………………………. 2-93
3.5.1 Order Specifications for Cans …………………………………. 2-93
3.5.2 Specifications for Can’s Bottom With Casters …………… 2-94
3.5.3 Sliver Can Information …………………………………………… 2-94
3.6 Auto Levelling System ……………………………………………….. 2-99
3.6.1 Examples of some Auto Levelling Systems ………………. 2-100
3.7 Recent Developments in Draw Frames ……………………….. 2-101
3.7.1 Integrated Draw Frame IDF ……………………………………. 2-101
3.7.2 CUBIcan Sliver Deposit System ……………………………… 2-103
3.7.3 Sliver Watch (Foreign Matter Detector) ……………………. 2-103
3.8 Relationship between Sliver Weight and other
Parameters ………………………………………………………………… 2-105
3.9 Production Rate per Delivery Head of Draw Frame ……. 2-106
3.10 Front Roller Surface Speed in Relation to Production
Rate ………………………………………………………………………….. 2-108
3.11 Relationship Between Sliver Weight and Production in
Hanks and Pounds …………………………………………………….. 2-109
3.12 Conversion of Sliver Weight to Sliver Count ………………. 2-110
3.13 Maintenance of Draw Frame ……………………………………… 2-111
3.14 Possible Causes of Drawn Sliver Defects …………………….. 2-113
Section 4 Combing Process ………………………………………………. 2-115
4.1 Purpose of Combing ………………………………………………….. 2-115
4.2 Combing Preparation ………………………………………………… 2-115
4.3 Combing Mechanism …………………………………………………. 2-119
4.3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 2-119
4.3.2 Operations ……………………………………………………………. 2-119
4.4 Combing Components Specification …………………………… 2-125
4.4.1 Combing Cylinder …………………………………………………. 2-125
4.4.2 Top Comb …………………………………………………………….. 2-127
4.5 Examples of Input and Output of Combing Process ……. 2-128
4.6 Advanced Development and Automation in Combing …. 2-129
4.6.1 Computer Aided Process Development ……………………. 2-129
4.6.2 SERVOlap E 6/4 – L ………………………………………………. 2-130
4.7 Possible Faults in Combing ………………………………………… 2-131
Section 5 Roving Process ………………………………………………….. 2-133
5.1 Function of Roving Process ………………………………………… 2-133
5.2 Drafting System ………………………………………………………… 2-133
5.2.1 In -feed Material ……………………………………………………. 2-133
5.2.2 Total Draft ……………………………………………………………. 2-133
5.2.3 Rear Draft …………………………………………………………….. 2-134
5.2.4 Roller Loading ……………………………………………………… 2-134
5.2.5 Top Roller Cots Grinding ……………………………………….. 2-134
5.2.6 Roving Guide and Condensers ………………………………… 2-134
5.3 Example of Drafting System on Speed Frame …………….. 2-135
5.3.1 Zone Settings And Maximum Fibre Length ………………. 2-136
5.3.2 Roller Loading ……………………………………………………… 2-137
5.3.3 Top Apron Cradle System ………………………………………. 2-138
5.3.4 Opening at Apron Release Point ……………………………… 2-139
5.3.5 Top Aprons …………………………………………………………… 2-140
5.3.6 Top Roller Cots …………………………………………………….. 2-141
5.3.7 Bottom Apron Nose Bar …………………………………………. 2-141
5.3.8 Rear Roving Guide ………………………………………………… 2-141
5.3.9 Rear Zone Condenser …………………………………………….. 2-142
5.3.10 Front Zone Condenser ……………………………………………. 2-143
5.4 Roving Twist ……………………………………………………………… 2-143
5.4.1 Relationship Between Fibre Fineness (Based On 1 Inch
Fibre Length) and Twist Factor of Roving ………………… 2-144
5.4.2 Factors Affecting Twist Factor of Roving …………………. 2-145
5.4.3 Relationship Between Fibre Length and Twist Factor
of Roving ……………………………………………………………… 2-146
5.5 Flyer Speed and Roving Conditions ……………………………. 2-147
5.5.1 Flyer Speed …………………………………………………………… 2-147
5.5.2 Roving Weight ………………………………………………………. 2-148
5.6 Bobbin Building ………………………………………………………… 2-149
5.6.1 Bobbin Building Mechanism of Toyota Roving
Frame …………………………………………………………………… 2-149
5.7 Roving Tension Adjustment ……………………………………….. 2-152
5.8 Horizontal Coil Density of Roving ……………………………… 2-153
5.8.1 Horizontal Coiling Density and Roving Count ………….. 2-153
5.9 Number of Coils of Roving …………………………………………. 2-154
5.10 Number of Coils Per Inch of Roving …………………………… 2-155
5.11 Common Defects in Roving ………………………………………… 2-156
5.12 Factors Affecting Roving Elongation and Remedies ……. 2-158
5.13 Machine Automation …………………………………………………. 2-159
5.13.1 Automatic Doffing and Bobbin Transfer System
(RO-WE-MAT 670 Roving Frame, Zinser) ………………. 2-159
5.13.2 Automatic Transfer System (Toyota) ……………………….. 2-160
Section 6 Spinning Process……………………………………………….. 2-162
6.1 Purpose of Spinning …………………………………………………… 2-162
6.2 Process Flow Chart for Various Common Spinning
Systems ……………………………………………………………………… 2-162
6.3 Ring Spinning ……………………………………………………………. 2-162
6.3.1 Drafting System ……………………………………………………. 2-163
6.3.2 Draft zones …………………………………………………………… 2-164
6.3.3 Examples of Drafting System for Cotton Ring Frame … 2-164
6.3.4 Top Roller Cots …………………………………………………….. 2-172
6.3.5 Twisting ……………………………………………………………….. 2-179
6.3.6 Ring …………………………………………………………………….. 2-179
6.3.7 Traveller ………………………………………………………………. 2-186
6.3.8 Wear and Life of the Traveller and Ring …………………… 2-191
6.3.9 Setting of Traveller Cleaner ……………………………………. 2-194
6.3.10 Traveller Speed in m/s ……………………………………………. 2-197
6.3.11 Relationship between Inside Diameter of Ring, Spindle
Revolution and Traveller Circumferential Speed ………. 2-198
6.3.12 Relationship between Bobbin Diameter, Twist Number,
Spindle Revolution, and Traveller Revolution …………… 2-199
6.3.13 Relationship between Inside Diameter of Ring, Bobbin
Diameter and Winding Angle ………………………………….. 2-200
6.3.14 Ratio Values of Ring Diameter, Bobbin Diameter, Bobbin
Length And Spindle Gauge …………………………………….. 2-201
6.3.15 High Performance Ring and Traveller ……………………… 2-203
6.3.16 Suessen Novibra Spindle HP-S 68 and Spindle
Bearing ………………………………………………………………… 2-208
6.3.17 Bobbin Building ……………………………………………………. 2-213
6.4 Open-End Spinning …………………………………………………… 2-218
6.4.1 Principle of Open-end Spinning ………………………………. 2-218
6.4.2 Relationship between Rotor Speed, Rotor Type and Yarn
Count …………………………………………………………………… 2-224
6.4.3 Layout of Spinning Components …………………………….. 2-225
6.4.4 Example of Recent Development in OE Spinning ……… 2-228
6.5 AIR-JET SPINNING …………………………………………………. 2-230
6.5.1 Processing Parameters and Fibre Characteristics for
Spinning 100% Cotton Yarn ……………………………………. 2-231
6.5.2 Muratec 851 MVS Air-jet Spinning Machine ……………. 2-236
6.5.3 Muratec 804 RJS – Roller Jet Spinning …………………….. 2-236
6.6 Various Developments in Spinning …………………………….. 2-237
6.6.1 Suessen Ring-Can Spinning System ………………………… 2-237
6.6.2 Rieter ComforSpin ………………………………………………… 2-238
6.6.3 Suessen EliTe Yarn ………………………………………………… 2-239
6.6.4 Zinser Compact Yarn ……………………………………………… 2-241
Section 7 Winding Process ……………………………………………….. 2-243
7.1 Purpose of Winding …………………………………………………… 2-243
7.2 Knotting Mechanism …………………………………………………. 2-243
7.3 Air Splicing Mechanism …………………………………………….. 2-246
7.4 Correct Build of Ring Cops ………………………………………… 2-247
7.4.1 Causes of Sloughing ………………………………………………. 2-247
7.4.2 Optimum Shaping of Spinning Bobbin …………………….. 2-248
7.4.3 Balloon Breaker ……………………………………………………. 2-250
7.5 Measures to Prevent Ribbon Winding ………………………… 2-251
7.5.1 Ribbon Winding ……………………………………………………. 2-251
7.5.2 Measures to Prevent Ribbon Winding ………………………. 2-252
7.5.3 Contact Pressure ……………………………………………………. 2-252
7.5.4 Ribbon Breaker Interval …………………………………………. 2-253
7.5.5 Tension ………………………………………………………………… 2-256
7.5.6 Increase (dish) ………………………………………………………. 2-256
7.5.7 Drum …………………………………………………………………… 2-257
7.6 Balloon Control and Tensioning Device ………………………. 2-258
7.6.1 Tension Manager and Bal-Con (Muratec) …………………. 2-258
7.6.2 Autotense Yarn Tension Control (Autoconer338) ………. 2-259
7.7 Calculation of Package Density ………………………………….. 2-261
7.8 Measures Against Excessive Yarn Breakage ……………….. 2-263
7.9 Causes and Corrective Actions for Poor Winding ……….. 2-264
7.10 Electronic Yarn Clearer ……………………………………………… 2-267
7.11 Conversion Graph of Peyer and UAM ……………………….. 2-269
7.12 Correlation Between Material and Type of Yarn by the
Static Electricity Amount …………………………………………… 2-270
7.13 Material Setting of Uster UAM Yarn Clearer ……………… 2-271
7.14 Types of Yarn Faults ………………………………………………….. 2-271
Section 8 Twisting Process ……………………………………………….. 2-273
8.1 Up Twister ………………………………………………………………… 2-273
8.2 Ring Twister ……………………………………………………………… 2-273
8.3 Two-for-One Twisting ………………………………………………… 2-274
8.3.1 Two-for-One Principle …………………………………………… 2-274
8.3.2 Characteristics of Two-for-One Twisting ………………….. 2-275
8.3.3 Tritec Twister ………………………………………………………… 2-275
8.4 Twisting Parameter ……………………………………………………. 2-277
Section 9 Application of Information Technology in
Spinning …………………………………………………………….. 2-283
9.1 ABC-Control for Blow Room and Carding …………………. 2-283
9.2 Spiderweb : The Mill Data and Information System …… 2-284
9.3 Barco Sycotex System ………………………………………………… 2-286
9.4 Uster Labdata ……………………………………………………………. 2-286
Section 10 Special Types of Yarns …………………………………….. 2-287
10.1 Production of Rough-Spun (Slub and Neps) Yarn on
Conventional Equipment …………………………………………… 2-287
10.1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 2-287
10.1.2 Machinery Settings ………………………………………………… 2-287
10.1.3 Maintenance …………………………………………………………. 2-288
10.1.4 Other Considerations ……………………………………………… 2-288
10.2 Recommendation for Producing Linen-Look Yarn on
Conventional Equipment …………………………………………… 2-290
10.2.1 Operating Procedures ………………………………………………. 2-290
10.2.2 Experiment Details ………………………………………………… 2-291
10.3 Slub Effect Yarn with Amsler GOE Device on OE Spinning
Machine ……………………………………………………………………. 2-293
10.3.1 Function ……………………………………………………………….. 2-293
10.4 Amsler Cortex System ……………………………………………….. 2-295
10.4.1 Features ……………………………………………………………….. 2-295
10.5 Core Spun Yarn by Plyfil Spinning System …………………. 2-297
10.5.1 Equipment for Hard Core Yarns ………………………………. 2-297
10.5.2 Equipment for Soft Core Yarns ……………………………….. 2-298
10.5.3 The advantages of PLYfiL ……………………………………… 2-300
10.6 Parallel Yarn by Parafil Spinning System …………………… 2-301
10.6.1 Structure of Parallel Yarn ……………………………………….. 2-301
10.6.2 Properties of Parallel Yarn ………………………………………. 2-302
Section 11 Wool Spinning Process …………………………………….. 2-304
11.1 Worsted System …………………………………………………………. 2-304
11.1.1 The Worsted Spinning Process Flow ………………………… 2-304
11.1.2 Scouring ………………………………………………………………. 2-304
11.1.3 Drying …………………………………………………………………. 2-304
11.1.4 Oiling …………………………………………………………………… 2-305
11.1.5 Carding ………………………………………………………………… 2-305
11.1.6 Backwashing ………………………………………………………… 2-305
11.1.7 Combing ………………………………………………………………. 2-305
11.1.8 Gilling …………………………………………………………………. 2-306
11.1.9 Drawing ……………………………………………………………….. 2-306
11.1.10 Spinning ………………………………………………………………. 2-306
11.2 Woollen System …………………………………………………………. 2-306
11.2.1 Woollen Spinning Process Flow ……………………………… 2-306
11.2.2 Scouring and drying ………………………………………………. 2-307
11.2.3 Carbonizing ………………………………………………………….. 2-307
11.2.4 Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 2-307
11.2.5 Blending ………………………………………………………………. 2-307
11.2.6 Oiling …………………………………………………………………… 2-307
11.2.7 Carding ………………………………………………………………… 2-307
11.2.8 Spinning ………………………………………………………………. 2-307
Section 12 Texturing ………………………………………………………… 2-308
12.1 Purpose of Texturing …………………………………………………. 2-308
12.2 False Twist Method ……………………………………………………. 2-308
12.3 Edge-Crimped Yarns …………………………………………………. 2-310
12.4 Stuffer-Box Crimping ………………………………………………… 2-311
12.5 Air-Textured Yarns ……………………………………………………. 2-312
12.6 Knit-De-Knit Method ………………………………………………… 2-313
12.7 Gear Crimping ………………………………………………………….. 2-313
12.8 Twist-Textured Yarns …………………………………………………. 2-313
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn 2-2
Section 1 Blowing Room Process ………………………………………. 2-2
1.1 Purpose of Blowing Room Process ……………………………… 2-2
1.2 Bale Opening …………………………………………………………….. 2-2
1.2.1 Features of some Automatic Bale Openers ……………….. 2-3
1.3 Cleaning ……………………………………………………………………. 2-5
1.3.1 Purpose of Cleaning ………………………………………………. 2-5
1.3.2 Feeding System …………………………………………………….. 2-5
1.3.3 Features of Some Cleaning Machines ………………………. 2-6
1.4 Blending ……………………………………………………………………. 2-9
1.4.1 Features of Mixer and Blender ………………………………… 2-9
1.5 Machine Arrangements ……………………………………………… 2-11
1.5.1 Examples of Machines Layout of Blowing Room ……… 2-11
1.6 Foreign Substance Detector ……………………………………….. 2-13
1.6.1 The Vision Shield (Jossi) ………………………………………… 2-14
1.6.2 Securomat (Truetzschler) ………………………………………… 2-15
1.6.3 Cotton Sorter RX-CS (Barco) …………………………………. 2-15
1.6.4 Optiscan (Uster) ……………………………………………………. 2-16
1.7 Maintenance Recommendations for Opening and
Cleaning Machines …………………………………………………….. 2-17
1.7.1 Maintenance of Opening Room/Opening Hoppers …….. 2-17
1.7.2 Maintenance of Cleaners ………………………………………… 2-19
1.8 Trouble Shooting for Opening and Cleaning Machines .. 2-20
Section 2 Carding Process ………………………………………………… 2-25
2.1 Purpose of Carding ……………………………………………………. 2-25
2.2 Carding Actions ………………………………………………………… 2-26
2.3 Card Feeding System …………………………………………………. 2-27
2.3.1 Rieter Aerofeed U …………………………………………………. 2-27
2.3.2 Rieter UNIstore A 77 ……………………………………………… 2-28
2.3.3 Truetzschler Tuft Feeder Directfeed DFK…………………. 2-29
2.3.4 Truetzschler Sensofeed …………………………………………… 2-30
2.3.5 Truetzschler Webfeed …………………………………………….. 2-30
2.4 Card Clothing ……………………………………………………………. 2-31
2.5 Card Clothing Specifications ……………………………………… 2-33
2.5.1 ECC Card Clothing ……………………………………………….. 2-33
2.5.2 Graf Card Clothing ………………………………………………… 2-36
2.5.3 Hollingsworth Card Clothing ………………………………….. 2-44
2.5.4 Kanai Card Clothing ……………………………………………… 2-48
2.7 Card Setting Recommendations …………………………………. 2-58
2.7.1 Conventional Revolving Flat Card …………………………… 2-58
2.7.2 Rieter C51 Card …………………………………………………….. 2-59
2.7.3 Truetzschler DK-803 Card ……………………………………… 2-60
2.8 Grinding ……………………………………………………………………. 2-61
2.8.1 Grinding Intervals …………………………………………………. 2-61
2.8.2 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS) …………………. 2-61
2.9 New Features on Carding Machine …………………………….. 2-66
2.9.1 Precision Flat Setting System (Truetzschler) …………….. 2-66
2.9.2 Flat Distance Measuring System ……………………………… 2-67
2.9.3 Webclean System (Truetzschler) ……………………………… 2-68
2.9.4 On-line Nep Counting (Truetzschler) ……………………….. 2-69
2.9.5 TREXplus (Rieter) ………………………………………………… 2-70
2.10 Tandem Card…………………………………………………………….. 2-71
2.10.1 The New Twin Cylinder Card-Crosrol CST ……………… 2-71
2.10.2 Technical Specification ………………………………………….. 2-72
2.11 Production Calculations …………………………………………….. 2-73
2.12 Conversion of Grain Weight and Sliver Count ……………. 2-74
2.13 Nep Counting ……………………………………………………………. 2-74
2.13.1 Three Different Ways of Nep Counting ……………………. 2-74
2.13.2 Nep Content of Card Web ………………………………………. 2-75
2.14 Uster AFIS N Application for Cotton Card
Maintenance ……………………………………………………………… 2-76
2.15 Maintenance Recommendations …………………………………. 2-77
2.15.1 Lubrication Schedule …………………………………………….. 2-77
2.15.2 Cleaning Procedures For High Production Carding
Equipment ……………………………………………………………. 2-77
2.16 Troubleshooting…………………………………………………………. 2-80
Section 3 Drawing Process ……………………………………………….. 2-85
3.1 Purpose of Drawing …………………………………………………… 2-85
3.2 Definition of Draft ……………………………………………………… 2-85
3.3 Drafting Zone Setting ………………………………………………… 2-87
3.3.1 Technological Main Draft Roll Settings ……………………. 2-87
3.3.2 Technological Break Draft Roll Setting ……………………. 2-88
3.3.3 Draft Rolls Setting …………………………………………………. 2-89
3.3.4 Examples for Drafting System Setting of Rieters
Draw Frame ………………………………………………………….. 2-91
3.4 Trumpet ……………………………………………………………………. 2-92
3.5 Sliver Can …………………………………………………………………. 2-93
3.5.1 Order Specifications for Cans …………………………………. 2-93
3.5.2 Specifications for Can’s Bottom With Casters …………… 2-94
3.5.3 Sliver Can Information …………………………………………… 2-94
3.6 Auto Levelling System ……………………………………………….. 2-99
3.6.1 Examples of some Auto Levelling Systems ………………. 2-100
3.7 Recent Developments in Draw Frames ……………………….. 2-101
3.7.1 Integrated Draw Frame IDF ……………………………………. 2-101
3.7.2 CUBIcan Sliver Deposit System ……………………………… 2-103
3.7.3 Sliver Watch (Foreign Matter Detector) ……………………. 2-103
3.8 Relationship between Sliver Weight and other
Parameters ………………………………………………………………… 2-105
3.9 Production Rate per Delivery Head of Draw Frame ……. 2-106
3.10 Front Roller Surface Speed in Relation to Production
Rate ………………………………………………………………………….. 2-108
3.11 Relationship Between Sliver Weight and Production in
Hanks and Pounds …………………………………………………….. 2-109
3.12 Conversion of Sliver Weight to Sliver Count ………………. 2-110
3.13 Maintenance of Draw Frame ……………………………………… 2-111
3.14 Possible Causes of Drawn Sliver Defects …………………….. 2-113
Section 4 Combing Process ………………………………………………. 2-115
4.1 Purpose of Combing ………………………………………………….. 2-115
4.2 Combing Preparation ………………………………………………… 2-115
4.3 Combing Mechanism …………………………………………………. 2-119
4.3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 2-119
4.3.2 Operations ……………………………………………………………. 2-119
4.4 Combing Components Specification …………………………… 2-125
4.4.1 Combing Cylinder …………………………………………………. 2-125
4.4.2 Top Comb …………………………………………………………….. 2-127
4.5 Examples of Input and Output of Combing Process ……. 2-128
4.6 Advanced Development and Automation in Combing …. 2-129
4.6.1 Computer Aided Process Development ……………………. 2-129
4.6.2 SERVOlap E 6/4 – L ………………………………………………. 2-130
4.7 Possible Faults in Combing ………………………………………… 2-131
Section 5 Roving Process ………………………………………………….. 2-133
5.1 Function of Roving Process ………………………………………… 2-133
5.2 Drafting System ………………………………………………………… 2-133
5.2.1 In -feed Material ……………………………………………………. 2-133
5.2.2 Total Draft ……………………………………………………………. 2-133
5.2.3 Rear Draft …………………………………………………………….. 2-134
5.2.4 Roller Loading ……………………………………………………… 2-134
5.2.5 Top Roller Cots Grinding ……………………………………….. 2-134
5.2.6 Roving Guide and Condensers ………………………………… 2-134
5.3 Example of Drafting System on Speed Frame …………….. 2-135
5.3.1 Zone Settings And Maximum Fibre Length ………………. 2-136
5.3.2 Roller Loading ……………………………………………………… 2-137
5.3.3 Top Apron Cradle System ………………………………………. 2-138
5.3.4 Opening at Apron Release Point ……………………………… 2-139
5.3.5 Top Aprons …………………………………………………………… 2-140
5.3.6 Top Roller Cots …………………………………………………….. 2-141
5.3.7 Bottom Apron Nose Bar …………………………………………. 2-141
5.3.8 Rear Roving Guide ………………………………………………… 2-141
5.3.9 Rear Zone Condenser …………………………………………….. 2-142
5.3.10 Front Zone Condenser ……………………………………………. 2-143
5.4 Roving Twist ……………………………………………………………… 2-143
5.4.1 Relationship Between Fibre Fineness (Based On 1 Inch
Fibre Length) and Twist Factor of Roving ………………… 2-144
5.4.2 Factors Affecting Twist Factor of Roving …………………. 2-145
5.4.3 Relationship Between Fibre Length and Twist Factor
of Roving ……………………………………………………………… 2-146
5.5 Flyer Speed and Roving Conditions ……………………………. 2-147
5.5.1 Flyer Speed …………………………………………………………… 2-147
5.5.2 Roving Weight ………………………………………………………. 2-148
5.6 Bobbin Building ………………………………………………………… 2-149
5.6.1 Bobbin Building Mechanism of Toyota Roving
Frame …………………………………………………………………… 2-149
5.7 Roving Tension Adjustment ……………………………………….. 2-152
5.8 Horizontal Coil Density of Roving ……………………………… 2-153
5.8.1 Horizontal Coiling Density and Roving Count ………….. 2-153
5.9 Number of Coils of Roving …………………………………………. 2-154
5.10 Number of Coils Per Inch of Roving …………………………… 2-155
5.11 Common Defects in Roving ………………………………………… 2-156
5.12 Factors Affecting Roving Elongation and Remedies ……. 2-158
5.13 Machine Automation …………………………………………………. 2-159
5.13.1 Automatic Doffing and Bobbin Transfer System
(RO-WE-MAT 670 Roving Frame, Zinser) ………………. 2-159
5.13.2 Automatic Transfer System (Toyota) ……………………….. 2-160
Section 6 Spinning Process……………………………………………….. 2-162
6.1 Purpose of Spinning …………………………………………………… 2-162
6.2 Process Flow Chart for Various Common Spinning
Systems ……………………………………………………………………… 2-162
6.3 Ring Spinning ……………………………………………………………. 2-162
6.3.1 Drafting System ……………………………………………………. 2-163
6.3.2 Draft zones …………………………………………………………… 2-164
6.3.3 Examples of Drafting System for Cotton Ring Frame … 2-164
6.3.4 Top Roller Cots …………………………………………………….. 2-172
6.3.5 Twisting ……………………………………………………………….. 2-179
6.3.6 Ring …………………………………………………………………….. 2-179
6.3.7 Traveller ………………………………………………………………. 2-186
6.3.8 Wear and Life of the Traveller and Ring …………………… 2-191
6.3.9 Setting of Traveller Cleaner ……………………………………. 2-194
6.3.10 Traveller Speed in m/s ……………………………………………. 2-197
6.3.11 Relationship between Inside Diameter of Ring, Spindle
Revolution and Traveller Circumferential Speed ………. 2-198
6.3.12 Relationship between Bobbin Diameter, Twist Number,
Spindle Revolution, and Traveller Revolution …………… 2-199
6.3.13 Relationship between Inside Diameter of Ring, Bobbin
Diameter and Winding Angle ………………………………….. 2-200
6.3.14 Ratio Values of Ring Diameter, Bobbin Diameter, Bobbin
Length And Spindle Gauge …………………………………….. 2-201
6.3.15 High Performance Ring and Traveller ……………………… 2-203
6.3.16 Suessen Novibra Spindle HP-S 68 and Spindle
Bearing ………………………………………………………………… 2-208
6.3.17 Bobbin Building ……………………………………………………. 2-213
6.4 Open-End Spinning …………………………………………………… 2-218
6.4.1 Principle of Open-end Spinning ………………………………. 2-218
6.4.2 Relationship between Rotor Speed, Rotor Type and Yarn
Count …………………………………………………………………… 2-224
6.4.3 Layout of Spinning Components …………………………….. 2-225
6.4.4 Example of Recent Development in OE Spinning ……… 2-228
6.5 AIR-JET SPINNING …………………………………………………. 2-230
6.5.1 Processing Parameters and Fibre Characteristics for
Spinning 100% Cotton Yarn ……………………………………. 2-231
6.5.2 Muratec 851 MVS Air-jet Spinning Machine ……………. 2-236
6.5.3 Muratec 804 RJS – Roller Jet Spinning …………………….. 2-236
6.6 Various Developments in Spinning …………………………….. 2-237
6.6.1 Suessen Ring-Can Spinning System ………………………… 2-237
6.6.2 Rieter ComforSpin ………………………………………………… 2-238
6.6.3 Suessen EliTe Yarn ………………………………………………… 2-239
6.6.4 Zinser Compact Yarn ……………………………………………… 2-241
Section 7 Winding Process ……………………………………………….. 2-243
7.1 Purpose of Winding …………………………………………………… 2-243
7.2 Knotting Mechanism …………………………………………………. 2-243
7.3 Air Splicing Mechanism …………………………………………….. 2-246
7.4 Correct Build of Ring Cops ………………………………………… 2-247
7.4.1 Causes of Sloughing ………………………………………………. 2-247
7.4.2 Optimum Shaping of Spinning Bobbin …………………….. 2-248
7.4.3 Balloon Breaker ……………………………………………………. 2-250
7.5 Measures to Prevent Ribbon Winding ………………………… 2-251
7.5.1 Ribbon Winding ……………………………………………………. 2-251
7.5.2 Measures to Prevent Ribbon Winding ………………………. 2-252
7.5.3 Contact Pressure ……………………………………………………. 2-252
7.5.4 Ribbon Breaker Interval …………………………………………. 2-253
7.5.5 Tension ………………………………………………………………… 2-256
7.5.6 Increase (dish) ………………………………………………………. 2-256
7.5.7 Drum …………………………………………………………………… 2-257
7.6 Balloon Control and Tensioning Device ………………………. 2-258
7.6.1 Tension Manager and Bal-Con (Muratec) …………………. 2-258
7.6.2 Autotense Yarn Tension Control (Autoconer338) ………. 2-259
7.7 Calculation of Package Density ………………………………….. 2-261
7.8 Measures Against Excessive Yarn Breakage ……………….. 2-263
7.9 Causes and Corrective Actions for Poor Winding ……….. 2-264
7.10 Electronic Yarn Clearer ……………………………………………… 2-267
7.11 Conversion Graph of Peyer and UAM ……………………….. 2-269
7.12 Correlation Between Material and Type of Yarn by the
Static Electricity Amount …………………………………………… 2-270
7.13 Material Setting of Uster UAM Yarn Clearer ……………… 2-271
7.14 Types of Yarn Faults ………………………………………………….. 2-271
Section 8 Twisting Process ……………………………………………….. 2-273
8.1 Up Twister ………………………………………………………………… 2-273
8.2 Ring Twister ……………………………………………………………… 2-273
8.3 Two-for-One Twisting ………………………………………………… 2-274
8.3.1 Two-for-One Principle …………………………………………… 2-274
8.3.2 Characteristics of Two-for-One Twisting ………………….. 2-275
8.3.3 Tritec Twister ………………………………………………………… 2-275
8.4 Twisting Parameter ……………………………………………………. 2-277
Section 9 Application of Information Technology in
Spinning …………………………………………………………….. 2-283
9.1 ABC-Control for Blow Room and Carding …………………. 2-283
9.2 Spiderweb : The Mill Data and Information System …… 2-284
9.3 Barco Sycotex System ………………………………………………… 2-286
9.4 Uster Labdata ……………………………………………………………. 2-286
Section 10 Special Types of Yarns …………………………………….. 2-287
10.1 Production of Rough-Spun (Slub and Neps) Yarn on
Conventional Equipment …………………………………………… 2-287
10.1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 2-287
10.1.2 Machinery Settings ………………………………………………… 2-287
10.1.3 Maintenance …………………………………………………………. 2-288
10.1.4 Other Considerations ……………………………………………… 2-288
10.2 Recommendation for Producing Linen-Look Yarn on
Conventional Equipment …………………………………………… 2-290
10.2.1 Operating Procedures ………………………………………………. 2-290
10.2.2 Experiment Details ………………………………………………… 2-291
10.3 Slub Effect Yarn with Amsler GOE Device on OE Spinning
Machine ……………………………………………………………………. 2-293
10.3.1 Function ……………………………………………………………….. 2-293
10.4 Amsler Cortex System ……………………………………………….. 2-295
10.4.1 Features ……………………………………………………………….. 2-295
10.5 Core Spun Yarn by Plyfil Spinning System …………………. 2-297
10.5.1 Equipment for Hard Core Yarns ………………………………. 2-297
10.5.2 Equipment for Soft Core Yarns ……………………………….. 2-298
10.5.3 The advantages of PLYfiL ……………………………………… 2-300
10.6 Parallel Yarn by Parafil Spinning System …………………… 2-301
10.6.1 Structure of Parallel Yarn ……………………………………….. 2-301
10.6.2 Properties of Parallel Yarn ………………………………………. 2-302
Section 11 Wool Spinning Process …………………………………….. 2-304
11.1 Worsted System …………………………………………………………. 2-304
11.1.1 The Worsted Spinning Process Flow ………………………… 2-304
11.1.2 Scouring ………………………………………………………………. 2-304
11.1.3 Drying …………………………………………………………………. 2-304
11.1.4 Oiling …………………………………………………………………… 2-305
11.1.5 Carding ………………………………………………………………… 2-305
11.1.6 Backwashing ………………………………………………………… 2-305
11.1.7 Combing ………………………………………………………………. 2-305
11.1.8 Gilling …………………………………………………………………. 2-306
11.1.9 Drawing ……………………………………………………………….. 2-306
11.1.10 Spinning ………………………………………………………………. 2-306
11.2 Woollen System …………………………………………………………. 2-306
11.2.1 Woollen Spinning Process Flow ……………………………… 2-306
11.2.2 Scouring and drying ………………………………………………. 2-307
11.2.3 Carbonizing ………………………………………………………….. 2-307
11.2.4 Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 2-307
11.2.5 Blending ………………………………………………………………. 2-307
11.2.6 Oiling …………………………………………………………………… 2-307
11.2.7 Carding ………………………………………………………………… 2-307
11.2.8 Spinning ………………………………………………………………. 2-307
Section 12 Texturing ………………………………………………………… 2-308
12.1 Purpose of Texturing …………………………………………………. 2-308
12.2 False Twist Method ……………………………………………………. 2-308
12.3 Edge-Crimped Yarns …………………………………………………. 2-310
12.4 Stuffer-Box Crimping ………………………………………………… 2-311
12.5 Air-Textured Yarns ……………………………………………………. 2-312
12.6 Knit-De-Knit Method ………………………………………………… 2-313
12.7 Gear Crimping ………………………………………………………….. 2-313
12.8 Twist-Textured Yarns …………………………………………………. 2-313
Chapter 3
Weaving and Woven Fabrics… ………… 3-2
Section 1 Warp Preparation Process…………………………………. 3-2
1.1 Warping Process ……………………………………………………….. 3-2
1.1.1 Direct Beaming …………………………………………………….. 3-2
1.1.2 Section Warping ……………………………………………………. 3-2
1.1.3 Ball Warping …………………………………………………………. 3-3
1.2 Warping Data ……………………………………………………………. 3-3
1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping ………………… 3-5
1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine …… 3-5
1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming …………… 3-6
1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing ……………………………. 3-9
1.6.1 Ball Warper Specification ……………………………………… 3-9
1.6.2 Ball Warping Process Parameters …………………………….. 3-9
1.6.3 Rope Dyeing …………………………………………………………. 3-10
1.6.4 Typical Recipe of Master Solution for Rope Dyeing ….. 3-11
1.6.5 Technical Features of Rope Dyeing Range ……………….. 3-12
1.6.6 Processing Parameters for Re-Beaming Of Rope
Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 3-13
1.7 Slasher Dyeing …………………………………………………………… 3-13
1.7.1 Warping Requirements …………………………………………… 3-14
1.7.2 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher Dyeing 3-15
1.7.3 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters …………………….. 3-16
1.8 Rope Dyeing Versus Slasher Dyeing……………………………. 3-16
1.8.1 Characteristics of Rope Dyeing ………………………………. 3-16
1.8.2 Disadvantages of Rope Dyeing ……………………………….. 3-17
Section 2 Warp Sizing ……………………………………………………… 3-19
2.1 Purpose of Warp Sizing ……………………………………………… 3-19
2.2 Warp Size Types and Properties …………………………………. 3-19
2.2.1 Warp Size Types And Properties ……………………………… 3-19
2.2.2 Size Auxiliary Chemicals ……………………………………….. 3-23
2.3 Sizing Agents and Applications …………………………………… 3-25
2.4 Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution ………………………. 3-25
2.4.1 Protein Sizes …………………………………………………………. 3-25
2.4.2 Starch Sizes ………………………………………………………….. 3-25
2.4.3 Cellulose Ether Sizes ……………………………………………… 3-26
2.4.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol Sizes …………………………………………. 3-26
2.4.5 Acrylate Copolymer Sizes ………………………………………. 3-27
2.5 Comparison of the Properties of Four Types of Sizing
Agent ………………………………………………………………………… 3-27
2.6 Emulsified Oil, Liquid Wax and Solid Wax ………………… 3-28
2.7 Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used Liquid
Wax…………………………………………………………………………… 3-28
2.8 Size Defects and Possible Causes ………………………………… 3-29
2.9 Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes ………………… 3-30
2.10 Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during
Sizing ………………………………………………………………………… 3-34
2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim ……………………………… 3-35
2.11.1 Size Requirements …………………………………………………. 3-35
2.11.2 Causes of Faults in Sizing and its Solutions ……………… 3-35
2.12 Recent Development in Sizing ……………………………………. 3-37
2.12.1 Wetsize Box SC (Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba) ……………….. 3-37
2.12.2 Ben-ecosize (Benninger) ………………………………………… 3-37
Section 3 Weaving Preparation ………………………………………… 3-38
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-38
3.1.1 Leasing ………………………………………………………………… 3-38
3.1.2 Drawing-in …………………………………………………………… 3-38
3.2 Specifications of Heald Wires …………………………………….. 3-38
3.3 Specifications of Drop Wire ……………………………………….. 3-40
3.4 Reed ………………………………………………………………………….. 3-43
3.5 Tying-in …………………………………………………………………….. 3-44
3.6 Recent Development in Weaving Preparation …………….. 3-44
3.6.1 Quick Style Change in Weaving ……………………………… 3-44
3.6.2 The Process Flow of a QSC System ………………………… 3-44
Section 4 Weaving ……………………………………………………………. 3-47
4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-47
4.2 Basic Motions of A Weaving Machine …………………………. 3-47
4.2.1 Shuttle Loom ………………………………………………………… 3-47
4.2.2 Shuttleless Looms …………………………………………………. 3-48
4.2.3 Useful Calculation Formulae for Weaving ………………… 3-54
Section 5 Woven Fabric Features ……………………………………… 3-56
5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-56
5.2 Warp and Weft Yarns ………………………………………………… 3-56
5.3 Selvedges …………………………………………………………………… 3-57
5.3.1 Selvedge Structure for Conventional Loom …………………. 3-58
5.3.2 Selvedge Problem …………………………………………………….. 3-62
5.4 Yarns Per Unit Length ……………………………………………….. 3-62
5.5 Face and Back …………………………………………………………… 3-63
5.6 Top and Bottom …………………………………………………………. 3-63
Section 6 Woven Structure ……………………………………………….. 3-64
6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-64
6.2 Plain Weave ………………………………………………………………. 3-64
6.2.1 Characteristics ………………………………………………………. 3-64
6.2.2 Ribbed Plain Fabrics ……………………………………………… 3-65
6.2.3 Plain Weave Derivative ………………………………………….. 3-66
6.3 Twill Weave ………………………………………………………………. 3-67
6.3.1 Characteristics ………………………………………………………. 3-69
6.3.2 Broken Twill Weave ………………………………………………. 3-70
6.4 Satin Weave ………………………………………………………………. 3-70
6.4.1 Satin-Weave Fabric ……………………………………………….. 3-71
6.4.2 Sateen Fabric ………………………………………………………… 3-71
6.4.3 Characteristics ………………………………………………………. 3-72
6.5 Comparison of Basic Weave Properties ………………………. 3-72
6.6 Special Weave Sturctures …………………………………………… 3-72
6.6.1 Pile Weaves ………………………………………………………….. 3-72
6.6.2 Double-cloth Weave ………………………………………………. 3-75
6.6.3 Crepe Weave …………………………………………………………. 3-75
6.6.4 Leno Weave ………………………………………………………….. 3-76
6.6.5 Swivel Weave ……………………………………………………….. 3-76
6.7 Woven Pattern Design ……………………………………………….. 3-77
6.7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 3-77
6.7.2 Dobby Pattern ……………………………………………………….. 3-77
6.7.3 Jacquard Pattern ……………………………………………………. 3-78
6.8 A Summary of Special Weaves and their Characteristics 3-79
Section 7 Woven Fabric Analysis ……………………………………… 3-81
7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-81
7.2 Identification of the Construction of a Fabric …………….. 3-81
7.3 Determining Yarn Counts of a Fabric …………………………. 3-82
7.4 Fabric Weight ……………………………………………………………. 3-82
7.4.1 Expression of Fabric Weight …………………………………… 3-82
7.4.2 Fabric Weight Calculation ………………………………………. 3-82
7.5 Converting Fabric Weight from one System to Another . 3-83
7.6 Weight of Silk Fabric …………………………………………………. 3-84
7.7 Woven Fabric Design …………………………………………………. 3-84
7.7.1 Cloth Setting Theories ……………………………………………. 3-84
7.7.2 Similarly Built Cloths ……………………………………………. 3-89
7.7.3 Other Expression of Setting ……………………………………. 3-91
7.8 Fabric Cover ……………………………………………………………… 3-92
7.8.1 Cover and Cover Factor (F.T. Peirce) ………………………. 3-92
7.8.2 Cloth Cover Factor ………………………………………………… 3-94
Weaving and Woven Fabrics… ………… 3-2
Section 1 Warp Preparation Process…………………………………. 3-2
1.1 Warping Process ……………………………………………………….. 3-2
1.1.1 Direct Beaming …………………………………………………….. 3-2
1.1.2 Section Warping ……………………………………………………. 3-2
1.1.3 Ball Warping …………………………………………………………. 3-3
1.2 Warping Data ……………………………………………………………. 3-3
1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping ………………… 3-5
1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine …… 3-5
1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming …………… 3-6
1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing ……………………………. 3-9
1.6.1 Ball Warper Specification ……………………………………… 3-9
1.6.2 Ball Warping Process Parameters …………………………….. 3-9
1.6.3 Rope Dyeing …………………………………………………………. 3-10
1.6.4 Typical Recipe of Master Solution for Rope Dyeing ….. 3-11
1.6.5 Technical Features of Rope Dyeing Range ……………….. 3-12
1.6.6 Processing Parameters for Re-Beaming Of Rope
Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 3-13
1.7 Slasher Dyeing …………………………………………………………… 3-13
1.7.1 Warping Requirements …………………………………………… 3-14
1.7.2 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher Dyeing 3-15
1.7.3 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters …………………….. 3-16
1.8 Rope Dyeing Versus Slasher Dyeing……………………………. 3-16
1.8.1 Characteristics of Rope Dyeing ………………………………. 3-16
1.8.2 Disadvantages of Rope Dyeing ……………………………….. 3-17
Section 2 Warp Sizing ……………………………………………………… 3-19
2.1 Purpose of Warp Sizing ……………………………………………… 3-19
2.2 Warp Size Types and Properties …………………………………. 3-19
2.2.1 Warp Size Types And Properties ……………………………… 3-19
2.2.2 Size Auxiliary Chemicals ……………………………………….. 3-23
2.3 Sizing Agents and Applications …………………………………… 3-25
2.4 Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution ………………………. 3-25
2.4.1 Protein Sizes …………………………………………………………. 3-25
2.4.2 Starch Sizes ………………………………………………………….. 3-25
2.4.3 Cellulose Ether Sizes ……………………………………………… 3-26
2.4.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol Sizes …………………………………………. 3-26
2.4.5 Acrylate Copolymer Sizes ………………………………………. 3-27
2.5 Comparison of the Properties of Four Types of Sizing
Agent ………………………………………………………………………… 3-27
2.6 Emulsified Oil, Liquid Wax and Solid Wax ………………… 3-28
2.7 Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used Liquid
Wax…………………………………………………………………………… 3-28
2.8 Size Defects and Possible Causes ………………………………… 3-29
2.9 Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes ………………… 3-30
2.10 Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during
Sizing ………………………………………………………………………… 3-34
2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim ……………………………… 3-35
2.11.1 Size Requirements …………………………………………………. 3-35
2.11.2 Causes of Faults in Sizing and its Solutions ……………… 3-35
2.12 Recent Development in Sizing ……………………………………. 3-37
2.12.1 Wetsize Box SC (Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba) ……………….. 3-37
2.12.2 Ben-ecosize (Benninger) ………………………………………… 3-37
Section 3 Weaving Preparation ………………………………………… 3-38
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-38
3.1.1 Leasing ………………………………………………………………… 3-38
3.1.2 Drawing-in …………………………………………………………… 3-38
3.2 Specifications of Heald Wires …………………………………….. 3-38
3.3 Specifications of Drop Wire ……………………………………….. 3-40
3.4 Reed ………………………………………………………………………….. 3-43
3.5 Tying-in …………………………………………………………………….. 3-44
3.6 Recent Development in Weaving Preparation …………….. 3-44
3.6.1 Quick Style Change in Weaving ……………………………… 3-44
3.6.2 The Process Flow of a QSC System ………………………… 3-44
Section 4 Weaving ……………………………………………………………. 3-47
4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-47
4.2 Basic Motions of A Weaving Machine …………………………. 3-47
4.2.1 Shuttle Loom ………………………………………………………… 3-47
4.2.2 Shuttleless Looms …………………………………………………. 3-48
4.2.3 Useful Calculation Formulae for Weaving ………………… 3-54
Section 5 Woven Fabric Features ……………………………………… 3-56
5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-56
5.2 Warp and Weft Yarns ………………………………………………… 3-56
5.3 Selvedges …………………………………………………………………… 3-57
5.3.1 Selvedge Structure for Conventional Loom …………………. 3-58
5.3.2 Selvedge Problem …………………………………………………….. 3-62
5.4 Yarns Per Unit Length ……………………………………………….. 3-62
5.5 Face and Back …………………………………………………………… 3-63
5.6 Top and Bottom …………………………………………………………. 3-63
Section 6 Woven Structure ……………………………………………….. 3-64
6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-64
6.2 Plain Weave ………………………………………………………………. 3-64
6.2.1 Characteristics ………………………………………………………. 3-64
6.2.2 Ribbed Plain Fabrics ……………………………………………… 3-65
6.2.3 Plain Weave Derivative ………………………………………….. 3-66
6.3 Twill Weave ………………………………………………………………. 3-67
6.3.1 Characteristics ………………………………………………………. 3-69
6.3.2 Broken Twill Weave ………………………………………………. 3-70
6.4 Satin Weave ………………………………………………………………. 3-70
6.4.1 Satin-Weave Fabric ……………………………………………….. 3-71
6.4.2 Sateen Fabric ………………………………………………………… 3-71
6.4.3 Characteristics ………………………………………………………. 3-72
6.5 Comparison of Basic Weave Properties ………………………. 3-72
6.6 Special Weave Sturctures …………………………………………… 3-72
6.6.1 Pile Weaves ………………………………………………………….. 3-72
6.6.2 Double-cloth Weave ………………………………………………. 3-75
6.6.3 Crepe Weave …………………………………………………………. 3-75
6.6.4 Leno Weave ………………………………………………………….. 3-76
6.6.5 Swivel Weave ……………………………………………………….. 3-76
6.7 Woven Pattern Design ……………………………………………….. 3-77
6.7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 3-77
6.7.2 Dobby Pattern ……………………………………………………….. 3-77
6.7.3 Jacquard Pattern ……………………………………………………. 3-78
6.8 A Summary of Special Weaves and their Characteristics 3-79
Section 7 Woven Fabric Analysis ……………………………………… 3-81
7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 3-81
7.2 Identification of the Construction of a Fabric …………….. 3-81
7.3 Determining Yarn Counts of a Fabric …………………………. 3-82
7.4 Fabric Weight ……………………………………………………………. 3-82
7.4.1 Expression of Fabric Weight …………………………………… 3-82
7.4.2 Fabric Weight Calculation ………………………………………. 3-82
7.5 Converting Fabric Weight from one System to Another . 3-83
7.6 Weight of Silk Fabric …………………………………………………. 3-84
7.7 Woven Fabric Design …………………………………………………. 3-84
7.7.1 Cloth Setting Theories ……………………………………………. 3-84
7.7.2 Similarly Built Cloths ……………………………………………. 3-89
7.7.3 Other Expression of Setting ……………………………………. 3-91
7.8 Fabric Cover ……………………………………………………………… 3-92
7.8.1 Cover and Cover Factor (F.T. Peirce) ………………………. 3-92
7.8.2 Cloth Cover Factor ………………………………………………… 3-94
Chapter 4
Knitting and Knitted Fabrics ………….. 4-2
Section 1 Knitting …………………………………………………………… 4-2
1.1 Knitting Process ………………………………………………………… 4-2
1.2 Weft-Knitting ……………………………………………………………. 4-2
1.3 Weft Knitting Machines …………………………………………….. 4-3
1.3.1 Two Types of Knitting Machines Using Beard Needles 4-3
1.3.2 Two Types of Knitting Machines Using Latch Needles 4-4
1.4 Key Components for Weft Knitted Fabric Formation …. 4-5
1.4.1 Knitting Needles ……………………………………………………. 4-5
1.4.2 Needle Bed …………………………………………………………… 4-6
1.4.4 Yarn Feeding ………………………………………………………… 4-7
1.4.3 Cam Box………………………………………………………………. 4-7
1.4.5 Sinker ………………………………………………………………….. 4-8
1.4.6 Key Terms of Knitted Fabric …………………………………… 4-9
1.5 Stitch (loop) Formation Sequence on a Latch Needle ….. 4-10
1.6 Types of Knitting Stitches ………………………………………….. 4-11
1.6.1 Plain Stitch …………………………………………………………… 4-11
1.6.2 Miss Stitch (Welt or float) ………………………………………. 4-11
1.6.3 Tuck Stitch …………………………………………………………… 4-11
1.7 Recent Developments in Weft Knitting ……………………….. 4-12
1.7.1 Examples of Recent Developments in Flat Knitting
Machines ……………………………………………………………… 4-13
1.7.2 Examples of Recent Developments in Circular Knitting
machines ………………………………………………………………. 4-14
Section 2 Typical Weft-Knit Structure………………………………. 4-17
2.1 Methods Used to Represent Weft-Knitted Structures ….. 4-17
2.1.1 Three Kinds of Methods used to Represent Weft
Knitted Structure …………………………………………………… 4-17
2.2 Single Knit Structures ……………………………………………….. 4-18
2.2.1 Plain Knit. ……………………………………………………………. 4-18
2.2.2 Lacoste ………………………………………………………………… 4-19
2.3 Double Knit Structures ……………………………………………… 4-20
2.3.1 Rib ………………………………………………………………………. 4-20
2.3.2 Half Milano ………………………………………………………….. 4-20
2.3.3 Full Milano …………………………………………………………… 4-21
2.3.4 Full Cardigan ………………………………………………………… 4-21
2.3.5 Half Cardigan ……………………………………………………….. 4-22
2.3.6 Purl Structure ……………………………………………………….. 4-22
2.3.7 Interlock Fabrics ……………………………………………………. 4-24
2.4 Structures and Techniques Commonly Applied to
Sweaters ……………………………………………………………………. 4-24
2.4.1 Intarsia …………………………………………………………………. 4-24
2.4.2 Designs Through Loop Transfer ……………………………… 4-25
2.5 Special Knit Fabrics Produced by Circular Knitting ….. 4-26
2.5.1 High-Pile Knits ……………………………………………………… 4-26
2.5.2 Knitted Terry ………………………………………………………… 4-27
2.5.3 Knitted Velour ………………………………………………………. 4-28
2.5.4 Fleecy Fabric ………………………………………………………… 4-28
2.5.5 Coloured Stripe Fabrics ………………………………………….. 4-29
2.5.6 Jacquard Fabric …………………………………………………….. 4-30
2.5.7 Polar Fleece ………………………………………………………….. 4-31
Section 3 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge ……………………….. 4-32
3.1 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge for Circular Knit …….. 4-32
3.2 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge for Wool Knitwear …… 4-34
Section 4 Quality and Production of Circular Kniting ………. 4-36
4.1 Pre-requisites of a Circular Knitting Machine …………….. 4-36
4.2 Production Conditions for Knitting ……………………………. 4-37
4.2.1 Selection of Proper Yarn Count ……………………………….. 4-37
4.2.2 Setting of the Knitting Machine. ……………………………… 4-37
4.2.3 Yarn Storage …………………………………………………………. 4-38
4.2.4 Air Conditioning of the Knitting Plant ……………………… 4-38
4.2.5 Cleaning of Knitting Machines ……………………………….. 4-38
4.3 Production Calculations …………………………………………….. 4-38
4.3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 4-38
4.4 Quality Characteristics of Ring-spun 100% Combed
Cotton Yarn for Circular Weft Knitting ……………………… 4-40
Section 5 Fabric Analysis ………………………………………………… 4-45
5.1 The Geometry of Plain Weft-knitted Fabric ……………….. 4-45
5.2 Stitch Density (Fabric Count) …………………………………….. 4-46
5.3 Cover Factor ……………………………………………………………… 4-46
5.4 Prediction of Knitted Performance by Mathematical
Model ……………………………………………………………………….. 4-47
5.4.1 Engineering the Fabric …………………………………………… 4-47
5.4.2 Checking the Specification …………………………………….. 4-47
5.4.3 Calculations Based on K values ………………………………. 4-48
5.4.4 Limitations of K values ………………………………………….. 4-50
5.5 STARFISH – Engineered Knitted Program for Cotton
Circular Knits …………………………………………………………… 4-51
Section 6 Typical Fabric Imperfections on Circular Knitting4-53
6.1 Fabric Skew ………………………………………………………………. 4-53
6.1.1 Definition …………………………………………………………….. 4-53
6.1.2 Causes …………………………………………………………………. 4-53
6.1.3 Evaluation of the Effect of Yarn, Knitting and Finishing
Parameters on Skew ………………………………………………. 4-54
6.1.4 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 4-58
6.2 Barre ………………………………………………………………………… 4-58
6.2.1 Definition of Barre ………………………………………………… 4-58
6.2.2 Causes of Barre …………………………………………………….. 4-58
7.2 Warp Knitting Machine Classification ……………………….. 4-61
Section 7Warp knitting and Warp Knitted Fabrics …………..4-61
7.1 Warp Knitting …………………………………………………………… 4-61
7.2.1 Tricot Machines …………………………………………………….. 4-62
7.2.2 Raschel Machines ………………………………………………….. 4-62
7.3 Knitting Elements of Warp Knitting Machine …………….. 4-63
7.3.1 Needle …………………………………………………………………. 4-63
7.3.2 The Sinker ……………………………………………………………. 4-64
7.3.3 Guides and Guide Bars …………………………………………… 4-64
7.3.4 Driving Mechanisms of Knitting Elements ……………….. 4-65
7.4 Key Terms of Warp Knits ………………………………………….. 4-66
7.4.1 Course and Wales ………………………………………………….. 4-66
7.4.2 Stitch Density ……………………………………………………….. 4-66
7.4.3 Loop Parts ……………………………………………………………. 4-66
7.4.4 Open and Closed Laps …………………………………………… 4-67
7.4.5 Technical Back ……………………………………………………… 4-67
7.4.6 Technical Face ………………………………………………………. 4-67
7.4.7 Run-in ………………………………………………………………….. 4-68
7.5 Common Warp Knit Fabric Structures and their
Characteristics ………………………………………………………….. 4-68
7.5.1 Tricot Fabrics ……………………………………………………….. 4-68
7.5.2 Raschel Fabrics …………………………………………………….. 4-72
Knitting and Knitted Fabrics ………….. 4-2
Section 1 Knitting …………………………………………………………… 4-2
1.1 Knitting Process ………………………………………………………… 4-2
1.2 Weft-Knitting ……………………………………………………………. 4-2
1.3 Weft Knitting Machines …………………………………………….. 4-3
1.3.1 Two Types of Knitting Machines Using Beard Needles 4-3
1.3.2 Two Types of Knitting Machines Using Latch Needles 4-4
1.4 Key Components for Weft Knitted Fabric Formation …. 4-5
1.4.1 Knitting Needles ……………………………………………………. 4-5
1.4.2 Needle Bed …………………………………………………………… 4-6
1.4.4 Yarn Feeding ………………………………………………………… 4-7
1.4.3 Cam Box………………………………………………………………. 4-7
1.4.5 Sinker ………………………………………………………………….. 4-8
1.4.6 Key Terms of Knitted Fabric …………………………………… 4-9
1.5 Stitch (loop) Formation Sequence on a Latch Needle ….. 4-10
1.6 Types of Knitting Stitches ………………………………………….. 4-11
1.6.1 Plain Stitch …………………………………………………………… 4-11
1.6.2 Miss Stitch (Welt or float) ………………………………………. 4-11
1.6.3 Tuck Stitch …………………………………………………………… 4-11
1.7 Recent Developments in Weft Knitting ……………………….. 4-12
1.7.1 Examples of Recent Developments in Flat Knitting
Machines ……………………………………………………………… 4-13
1.7.2 Examples of Recent Developments in Circular Knitting
machines ………………………………………………………………. 4-14
Section 2 Typical Weft-Knit Structure………………………………. 4-17
2.1 Methods Used to Represent Weft-Knitted Structures ….. 4-17
2.1.1 Three Kinds of Methods used to Represent Weft
Knitted Structure …………………………………………………… 4-17
2.2 Single Knit Structures ……………………………………………….. 4-18
2.2.1 Plain Knit. ……………………………………………………………. 4-18
2.2.2 Lacoste ………………………………………………………………… 4-19
2.3 Double Knit Structures ……………………………………………… 4-20
2.3.1 Rib ………………………………………………………………………. 4-20
2.3.2 Half Milano ………………………………………………………….. 4-20
2.3.3 Full Milano …………………………………………………………… 4-21
2.3.4 Full Cardigan ………………………………………………………… 4-21
2.3.5 Half Cardigan ……………………………………………………….. 4-22
2.3.6 Purl Structure ……………………………………………………….. 4-22
2.3.7 Interlock Fabrics ……………………………………………………. 4-24
2.4 Structures and Techniques Commonly Applied to
Sweaters ……………………………………………………………………. 4-24
2.4.1 Intarsia …………………………………………………………………. 4-24
2.4.2 Designs Through Loop Transfer ……………………………… 4-25
2.5 Special Knit Fabrics Produced by Circular Knitting ….. 4-26
2.5.1 High-Pile Knits ……………………………………………………… 4-26
2.5.2 Knitted Terry ………………………………………………………… 4-27
2.5.3 Knitted Velour ………………………………………………………. 4-28
2.5.4 Fleecy Fabric ………………………………………………………… 4-28
2.5.5 Coloured Stripe Fabrics ………………………………………….. 4-29
2.5.6 Jacquard Fabric …………………………………………………….. 4-30
2.5.7 Polar Fleece ………………………………………………………….. 4-31
Section 3 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge ……………………….. 4-32
3.1 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge for Circular Knit …….. 4-32
3.2 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge for Wool Knitwear …… 4-34
Section 4 Quality and Production of Circular Kniting ………. 4-36
4.1 Pre-requisites of a Circular Knitting Machine …………….. 4-36
4.2 Production Conditions for Knitting ……………………………. 4-37
4.2.1 Selection of Proper Yarn Count ……………………………….. 4-37
4.2.2 Setting of the Knitting Machine. ……………………………… 4-37
4.2.3 Yarn Storage …………………………………………………………. 4-38
4.2.4 Air Conditioning of the Knitting Plant ……………………… 4-38
4.2.5 Cleaning of Knitting Machines ……………………………….. 4-38
4.3 Production Calculations …………………………………………….. 4-38
4.3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 4-38
4.4 Quality Characteristics of Ring-spun 100% Combed
Cotton Yarn for Circular Weft Knitting ……………………… 4-40
Section 5 Fabric Analysis ………………………………………………… 4-45
5.1 The Geometry of Plain Weft-knitted Fabric ……………….. 4-45
5.2 Stitch Density (Fabric Count) …………………………………….. 4-46
5.3 Cover Factor ……………………………………………………………… 4-46
5.4 Prediction of Knitted Performance by Mathematical
Model ……………………………………………………………………….. 4-47
5.4.1 Engineering the Fabric …………………………………………… 4-47
5.4.2 Checking the Specification …………………………………….. 4-47
5.4.3 Calculations Based on K values ………………………………. 4-48
5.4.4 Limitations of K values ………………………………………….. 4-50
5.5 STARFISH – Engineered Knitted Program for Cotton
Circular Knits …………………………………………………………… 4-51
Section 6 Typical Fabric Imperfections on Circular Knitting4-53
6.1 Fabric Skew ………………………………………………………………. 4-53
6.1.1 Definition …………………………………………………………….. 4-53
6.1.2 Causes …………………………………………………………………. 4-53
6.1.3 Evaluation of the Effect of Yarn, Knitting and Finishing
Parameters on Skew ………………………………………………. 4-54
6.1.4 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 4-58
6.2 Barre ………………………………………………………………………… 4-58
6.2.1 Definition of Barre ………………………………………………… 4-58
6.2.2 Causes of Barre …………………………………………………….. 4-58
7.2 Warp Knitting Machine Classification ……………………….. 4-61
Section 7Warp knitting and Warp Knitted Fabrics …………..4-61
7.1 Warp Knitting …………………………………………………………… 4-61
7.2.1 Tricot Machines …………………………………………………….. 4-62
7.2.2 Raschel Machines ………………………………………………….. 4-62
7.3 Knitting Elements of Warp Knitting Machine …………….. 4-63
7.3.1 Needle …………………………………………………………………. 4-63
7.3.2 The Sinker ……………………………………………………………. 4-64
7.3.3 Guides and Guide Bars …………………………………………… 4-64
7.3.4 Driving Mechanisms of Knitting Elements ……………….. 4-65
7.4 Key Terms of Warp Knits ………………………………………….. 4-66
7.4.1 Course and Wales ………………………………………………….. 4-66
7.4.2 Stitch Density ……………………………………………………….. 4-66
7.4.3 Loop Parts ……………………………………………………………. 4-66
7.4.4 Open and Closed Laps …………………………………………… 4-67
7.4.5 Technical Back ……………………………………………………… 4-67
7.4.6 Technical Face ………………………………………………………. 4-67
7.4.7 Run-in ………………………………………………………………….. 4-68
7.5 Common Warp Knit Fabric Structures and their
Characteristics ………………………………………………………….. 4-68
7.5.1 Tricot Fabrics ……………………………………………………….. 4-68
7.5.2 Raschel Fabrics …………………………………………………….. 4-72
Chapter 5
Textile Coloration and Finishing
Treatments …………………………………….. 5-2
Section 1 Textile Coloration and Finishing ……………………….. 5-2
1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 5-2
1.2 Preparation of Cotton Goods ……………………………………… 5-2
1.2.1 Grey Inspection ……………………………………………………. 5-3
1.2.2 Singeing ……………………………………………………………….. 5-3
1.2.3 Desizing ……………………………………………………………….. 5-3
1.2.4 Scouring ………………………………………………………………. 5-3
1.2.5 Bleaching ……………………………………………………………… 5-4
1.2.6 Mercerization ……………………………………………………….. 5-5
1.2.7 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 5-5
1.3 Fluorescent Brightening …………………………………………….. 5-5
1.4 Dyeing ………………………………………………………………………. 5-6
1.4.1 Terminology Relating to Dyeing ……………………………… 5-6
1.4.2 Factors that Affect Dyeing ……………………………………… 5-7
1.4.3 Classification of Dyes ……………………………………………. 5-8
1.4.4 Colour Formulation ……………………………………………….. 5-10
1.4.5 Colour Fastness …………………………………………………….. 5-10
1.4.6 Application of Pigments …………………………………………. 5-12
1.4.7 Methods of Dyeing ………………………………………………… 5-12
1.4.8 Special Dyeing Effects …………………………………………… 5-20
1.4.9 Computer Colour Matching ……………………………………. 5-20
1.5 Printing …………………………………………………………………….. 5-22
1.5.1 General Printing Procedures …………………………………… 5-23
1.5.2 Methods of Printing ……………………………………………….. 5-25
1.5.3 Printing Effects ……………………………………………………… 5-33
1.5.4 Types of Prints ………………………………………………………. 5-33
1.5.5 CAD/CAM System for Textile Printing ……………………. 5-35
1.6 Finishing …………………………………………………………………… 5-36
1.6.1 Preparation …………………………………………………………… 5-36
1.6.2 Finishing ………………………………………………………………. 5-37
1.6.3 Classification of Finishing ……………………………………… 5-37
Section 2 Common Finishing Treatments for Cotton Fabrics 5-44
2.1 Wrinkle-free Treatment of Cotton Fabrics and
Garments ………………………………………………………………….. 5-44
2.1.1 General Considerations for Wrinkle-free Treatment …… 5-44
2.1.2 Treatment Processes ………………………………………………. 5-45
2.2 Flame Retardant Treatment on Cotton Fabric by
Precondensate/NH3 Process ……………………………………….. 5-50
2.2.1 Fabric Preparation …………………………………………………. 5-50
2.2.2 Precondensate Formulation …………………………………….. 5-50
2.2.3 Application …………………………………………………………… 5-51
2.2.4 Ammoniation ………………………………………………………… 5-51
2.2.5 Oxidation and Process Washing ………………………………. 5-53
2.2.6 Fabric After-Treatments …………………………………………. 5-54
2.2.7 Treatment of Cotton Blended Fabrics ………………………. 5-54
2.3 Hints for Wet Processing of Cotton/Spandex Fabric ……. 5-55
2.3.1 Spandex in Knitted Fabric ………………………………………. 5-55
2.3.2 Relaxation ……………………………………………………………. 5-55
2.3.3 Heat-Setting ………………………………………………………….. 5-56
2.3.4 Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 5-57
2.3.5 Drying …………………………………………………………………. 5-58
2.3.6 Cotton/Spandex Woven Fabric ………………………………… 5-58
2.3.7 Relaxation ……………………………………………………………. 5-58
2.3.8 Heat-Setting ………………………………………………………….. 5-58
2.3.9 Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 5-59
2.3.10 Finishing ………………………………………………………………. 5-59
Textile Coloration and Finishing
Treatments …………………………………….. 5-2
Section 1 Textile Coloration and Finishing ……………………….. 5-2
1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 5-2
1.2 Preparation of Cotton Goods ……………………………………… 5-2
1.2.1 Grey Inspection ……………………………………………………. 5-3
1.2.2 Singeing ……………………………………………………………….. 5-3
1.2.3 Desizing ……………………………………………………………….. 5-3
1.2.4 Scouring ………………………………………………………………. 5-3
1.2.5 Bleaching ……………………………………………………………… 5-4
1.2.6 Mercerization ……………………………………………………….. 5-5
1.2.7 Summary ……………………………………………………………… 5-5
1.3 Fluorescent Brightening …………………………………………….. 5-5
1.4 Dyeing ………………………………………………………………………. 5-6
1.4.1 Terminology Relating to Dyeing ……………………………… 5-6
1.4.2 Factors that Affect Dyeing ……………………………………… 5-7
1.4.3 Classification of Dyes ……………………………………………. 5-8
1.4.4 Colour Formulation ……………………………………………….. 5-10
1.4.5 Colour Fastness …………………………………………………….. 5-10
1.4.6 Application of Pigments …………………………………………. 5-12
1.4.7 Methods of Dyeing ………………………………………………… 5-12
1.4.8 Special Dyeing Effects …………………………………………… 5-20
1.4.9 Computer Colour Matching ……………………………………. 5-20
1.5 Printing …………………………………………………………………….. 5-22
1.5.1 General Printing Procedures …………………………………… 5-23
1.5.2 Methods of Printing ……………………………………………….. 5-25
1.5.3 Printing Effects ……………………………………………………… 5-33
1.5.4 Types of Prints ………………………………………………………. 5-33
1.5.5 CAD/CAM System for Textile Printing ……………………. 5-35
1.6 Finishing …………………………………………………………………… 5-36
1.6.1 Preparation …………………………………………………………… 5-36
1.6.2 Finishing ………………………………………………………………. 5-37
1.6.3 Classification of Finishing ……………………………………… 5-37
Section 2 Common Finishing Treatments for Cotton Fabrics 5-44
2.1 Wrinkle-free Treatment of Cotton Fabrics and
Garments ………………………………………………………………….. 5-44
2.1.1 General Considerations for Wrinkle-free Treatment …… 5-44
2.1.2 Treatment Processes ………………………………………………. 5-45
2.2 Flame Retardant Treatment on Cotton Fabric by
Precondensate/NH3 Process ……………………………………….. 5-50
2.2.1 Fabric Preparation …………………………………………………. 5-50
2.2.2 Precondensate Formulation …………………………………….. 5-50
2.2.3 Application …………………………………………………………… 5-51
2.2.4 Ammoniation ………………………………………………………… 5-51
2.2.5 Oxidation and Process Washing ………………………………. 5-53
2.2.6 Fabric After-Treatments …………………………………………. 5-54
2.2.7 Treatment of Cotton Blended Fabrics ………………………. 5-54
2.3 Hints for Wet Processing of Cotton/Spandex Fabric ……. 5-55
2.3.1 Spandex in Knitted Fabric ………………………………………. 5-55
2.3.2 Relaxation ……………………………………………………………. 5-55
2.3.3 Heat-Setting ………………………………………………………….. 5-56
2.3.4 Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 5-57
2.3.5 Drying …………………………………………………………………. 5-58
2.3.6 Cotton/Spandex Woven Fabric ………………………………… 5-58
2.3.7 Relaxation ……………………………………………………………. 5-58
2.3.8 Heat-Setting ………………………………………………………….. 5-58
2.3.9 Dyeing …………………………………………………………………. 5-59
2.3.10 Finishing ………………………………………………………………. 5-59
Chapter 6
Textiles Testing and Quality Control .. 6-2
Section 1 Cotton Fibre Testing …………………………………………. 6-2
1.1 Terms Relating to the Conditioning and Testing of
Textiles ……………………………………………………………………… 6-2
1.2 Recommendations for a Physical Testing Laboratory
for Fibre and Yarn …………………………………………………….. 6-3
1.3 Fibre Testing Condition ……………………………………………… 6-4
1.3.1 Ambient Laboratory Conditions for Fibre Testing ……… 6-4
1.4 Fibre Moisture …………………………………………………………… 6-4
1.4.1 Measurement of Moisture Regain ……………………………. 6-4
1.4.2 Commercial Moisture Regain Values ……………………….. 6-5
1.4.3 Relationship of Temperature and Relative Humidity
on Moisture Regain of Cotton …………………………………. 6-7
1.5 Fibre Length Testing Principle …………………………………… 6-8
1.5.1 Staple Diagram Method – Shirley Comb Sorter …………. 6-9
1.5.2 Fibrograph ……………………………………………………………. 6-11
1.5.3 Comparison and Evaluation of Staple Diagram and
Fibrogram …………………………………………………………….. 6-13
1.5.4 Staple Length Conversion ………………………………………. 6-17
1.6 Fibre Fineness Testing ……………………………………………….. 6-17
1.6.1 Micronaire Testing Procedure …………………………………. 6-18
1.6.2 Calculation of Average Fibre Fineness ……………………… 6-19
1.7 Fibre Maturity Testing ………………………………………………. 6-20
1.7.1 Microscopic Array Method …………………………………….. 6-20
1.7.2 Differential Dyeing ……………………………………………….. 6-21
1.7.3 Caustic Method …………………………………………………….. 6-21
1.8 Fibre Strength Testing ……………………………………………….. 6-22
1.8.1 Pressley Fibre Strength Tester …………………………………. 6-22
1.8.2 Stelometer ……………………………………………………………. 6-24
1.8.3 Pressley Index and Fibre Strength (lb/in2) Conversion
Table ……………………………………………………………………. 6-25
1.9 Fibre Dust and Trash …………………………………………………. 6-26
1.9.1 Definition of Dust and Trash …………………………………… 6-26
1.9.2 Trash And Dust Measurement By Using Shirley
Analyzer ………………………………………………………………. 6-27
1.10 Fibre Identification ……………………………………………………. 6-29
1.11 Typical Fibre Testing Equipment ……………………………….. 6-34
1.11.1 High Volume Instrument (HVI) ………………………………. 6-34
1.11.2 Advanced Fibre Information System (Uster AFIS) ……. 6-38
1.11.3 MicroDust and Trash Analyser (Uster MDTA 3) ……….. 6-40
1.11.4 Comparison Between Uster® MDTA 3 and
Uster®AFIS-T ……………………………………………………….. 6-41
1.11.5 Recommendations for Fields of Application ……………… 6-43
1.11.6 Statistics on Raw Cotton Fibre Properties Determined
with Uster HVI ……………………………………………………… 6-44
Section 2 Yarn Testing ……………………………………………………… 6-49
2.1 Yarn Conditioning …………………………………………………….. 6-49
2.1.1 Basis of Unscoured Yarn ………………………………………… 6-49
2.1.2 Basis of Scoured Yarn ……………………………………………. 6-49
2.1.3 Preconditioning …………………………………………………….. 6-49
2.1.4 Conditioning …………………………………………………………. 6-50
2.1.5 Oven-Drying ………………………………………………………… 6-50
2.2 Yarn Numbering Systems …………………………………………… 6-50
2.2.1 Direct and Indirect Systems ……………………………………. 6-50
2.2.2 Conversion Between Yarn Numbering Systems ………… 6-52
2.2.3 Yarn Diameter ………………………………………………………. 6-52
2.3 Testing Plan ………………………………………………………………. 6-52
2.4 Yarn Count Testing ……………………………………………………. 6-61
2.4.1 Instruments …………………………………………………………… 6-61
2.4.2 Sampling ……………………………………………………………… 6-61
2.4.3 Testing Procedure ………………………………………………….. 6-61
2.5 Lea Yarn Strength ……………………………………………………… 6-62
2.5.1 Lea Yarn Strength Testing ………………………………………. 6-62
2.5.2 Yarn Strength Conversion ………………………………………. 6-62
2.6 Yarn Twist Testing …………………………………………………….. 6-65
2.7 Yarn Appearance Characteristics ………………………………. 6-66
2.7.1 Count Variation …………………………………………………….. 6-66
2.7.2 Mass Variation ………………………………………………………. 6-66
2.7.3 Hairiness ………………………………………………………………. 6-67
2.7.4 Imperfections ………………………………………………………… 6-67
2.7.5 Testing of Yarn Appearance Characteristics (Uster® Yarn
Testing Series) ………………………………………………………. 6-67
2.8 Tensile Properties ………………………………………………………. 6-71
2.8.1 Uster Tensojet ……………………………………………………….. 6-72
2.9 Classimat Defects ………………………………………………………. 6-73
2.10 Yarn Quality Statistics of 100% Cotton Carded Ring
Spun Yarns ………………………………………………………………… 6-74
2.10.1 Yarn Quality …………………………………………………………. 6-74
2.10.3 CLASSIMAT Defects ……………………………………………. 6-77
2.10.2 Imperfections ………………………………………………………… 6-77
2.10.4 Tensile Properties ………………………………………………….. 6-78
2.10.5 HV Tensile Properties ……………………………………………. 6-81
2.11 Standard Tolerances for Yarn Spun on the Cotton
System ………………………………………………………………………. 6-85
2.11.1 Strength ……………………………………………………………….. 6-85
2.11.2 Yarn Number ………………………………………………………… 6-85
2.11.3 Twist ……………………………………………………………………. 6-85
2.11.4 Extractable Matter …………………………………………………. 6-85
2.11.5 Appearance …………………………………………………………… 6-85
2.11.6 Uniformity ……………………………………………………………. 6-86
2.12 New Developments in Testing …………………………………….. 6-86
2.12.1 Uster® Qualiprofile ………………………………………………… 6-86
2.12.2 Uster® Lab Expert …………………………………………………. 6-87
Section 3 Woven Fabric Inspection and Testing ……………….. 6-88
3.1 Woven Fabric Testing ………………………………………………… 6-88
3.1.1 Fabric Construction ……………………………………………….. 6-88
3.1.2 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance … 6-91
3.1.3 Fabric Strength ……………………………………………………… 6-94
3.1.4 Relationship Between Strip Test & Grab Test ……………. 6-95
3.2 Woven Fabric Inspection System ……………………………….. 6-95
3.2.1 4 Point System ………………………………………………………. 6-95
3.2.2 10 Point System …………………………………………………….. 6-98
3.2.3 Graniteville “78” System of Visual Quality Evaluation
for Woven and Knitted Fabrics ……………………………….. 6-99
Section 4 Knitted Fabric Inspection and Testing ……………….. 6-101
4.1 Knitted Fabric Testing ……………………………………………….. 6-101
4.1.1 Fabric Construction ……………………………………………….. 6-101
4.1.2 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance … 6-102
4.1.3 Fabric Strength Testing ………………………………………….. 6-102
4.2 Knitted Fabric Inspection Systems …………………………….. 16-02
4.2.1 The KTA System for Circular Knitted Fabrics …………… 6-102
4.2.2 The KTA System for Raschel Knitted Fabrics …………… 6-104
4.2.3 The KTA System for Tricot Fabrics …………………………. 6-107
Section 5 Fabric Quality and Performance ……………………….. 6-113
5.1 Quality Standard and Performance Tests for Apparel …. 6-113
5.1.2 Quality Guideline for Fabrics Containing Lycra® 6-116
5.2 US Standard for Flammability …………………………………… 6-120
5.2.1 Flammable Fabrics Act Standards – USA …………………. 6-120
5.2.2 Federal Test Method Standard 191 – Textile Test
Methods ……………………………………………………………….. 6-122
5.2.3 Miscellaneous Tests ……………………………………………….. 6-123
5.3 Woven Fabric Defect Description and Cause ………………. 6-124
5.4 Illustrations of Woven Fabric Faults ………………………….. 6-129
5.5 Knitted Fabric Defect Description and Cause …………….. 6-136
5.6 Illustrations of Knitted Fabric Faults …………………………. 6-140
Textiles Testing and Quality Control .. 6-2
Section 1 Cotton Fibre Testing …………………………………………. 6-2
1.1 Terms Relating to the Conditioning and Testing of
Textiles ……………………………………………………………………… 6-2
1.2 Recommendations for a Physical Testing Laboratory
for Fibre and Yarn …………………………………………………….. 6-3
1.3 Fibre Testing Condition ……………………………………………… 6-4
1.3.1 Ambient Laboratory Conditions for Fibre Testing ……… 6-4
1.4 Fibre Moisture …………………………………………………………… 6-4
1.4.1 Measurement of Moisture Regain ……………………………. 6-4
1.4.2 Commercial Moisture Regain Values ……………………….. 6-5
1.4.3 Relationship of Temperature and Relative Humidity
on Moisture Regain of Cotton …………………………………. 6-7
1.5 Fibre Length Testing Principle …………………………………… 6-8
1.5.1 Staple Diagram Method – Shirley Comb Sorter …………. 6-9
1.5.2 Fibrograph ……………………………………………………………. 6-11
1.5.3 Comparison and Evaluation of Staple Diagram and
Fibrogram …………………………………………………………….. 6-13
1.5.4 Staple Length Conversion ………………………………………. 6-17
1.6 Fibre Fineness Testing ……………………………………………….. 6-17
1.6.1 Micronaire Testing Procedure …………………………………. 6-18
1.6.2 Calculation of Average Fibre Fineness ……………………… 6-19
1.7 Fibre Maturity Testing ………………………………………………. 6-20
1.7.1 Microscopic Array Method …………………………………….. 6-20
1.7.2 Differential Dyeing ……………………………………………….. 6-21
1.7.3 Caustic Method …………………………………………………….. 6-21
1.8 Fibre Strength Testing ……………………………………………….. 6-22
1.8.1 Pressley Fibre Strength Tester …………………………………. 6-22
1.8.2 Stelometer ……………………………………………………………. 6-24
1.8.3 Pressley Index and Fibre Strength (lb/in2) Conversion
Table ……………………………………………………………………. 6-25
1.9 Fibre Dust and Trash …………………………………………………. 6-26
1.9.1 Definition of Dust and Trash …………………………………… 6-26
1.9.2 Trash And Dust Measurement By Using Shirley
Analyzer ………………………………………………………………. 6-27
1.10 Fibre Identification ……………………………………………………. 6-29
1.11 Typical Fibre Testing Equipment ……………………………….. 6-34
1.11.1 High Volume Instrument (HVI) ………………………………. 6-34
1.11.2 Advanced Fibre Information System (Uster AFIS) ……. 6-38
1.11.3 MicroDust and Trash Analyser (Uster MDTA 3) ……….. 6-40
1.11.4 Comparison Between Uster® MDTA 3 and
Uster®AFIS-T ……………………………………………………….. 6-41
1.11.5 Recommendations for Fields of Application ……………… 6-43
1.11.6 Statistics on Raw Cotton Fibre Properties Determined
with Uster HVI ……………………………………………………… 6-44
Section 2 Yarn Testing ……………………………………………………… 6-49
2.1 Yarn Conditioning …………………………………………………….. 6-49
2.1.1 Basis of Unscoured Yarn ………………………………………… 6-49
2.1.2 Basis of Scoured Yarn ……………………………………………. 6-49
2.1.3 Preconditioning …………………………………………………….. 6-49
2.1.4 Conditioning …………………………………………………………. 6-50
2.1.5 Oven-Drying ………………………………………………………… 6-50
2.2 Yarn Numbering Systems …………………………………………… 6-50
2.2.1 Direct and Indirect Systems ……………………………………. 6-50
2.2.2 Conversion Between Yarn Numbering Systems ………… 6-52
2.2.3 Yarn Diameter ………………………………………………………. 6-52
2.3 Testing Plan ………………………………………………………………. 6-52
2.4 Yarn Count Testing ……………………………………………………. 6-61
2.4.1 Instruments …………………………………………………………… 6-61
2.4.2 Sampling ……………………………………………………………… 6-61
2.4.3 Testing Procedure ………………………………………………….. 6-61
2.5 Lea Yarn Strength ……………………………………………………… 6-62
2.5.1 Lea Yarn Strength Testing ………………………………………. 6-62
2.5.2 Yarn Strength Conversion ………………………………………. 6-62
2.6 Yarn Twist Testing …………………………………………………….. 6-65
2.7 Yarn Appearance Characteristics ………………………………. 6-66
2.7.1 Count Variation …………………………………………………….. 6-66
2.7.2 Mass Variation ………………………………………………………. 6-66
2.7.3 Hairiness ………………………………………………………………. 6-67
2.7.4 Imperfections ………………………………………………………… 6-67
2.7.5 Testing of Yarn Appearance Characteristics (Uster® Yarn
Testing Series) ………………………………………………………. 6-67
2.8 Tensile Properties ………………………………………………………. 6-71
2.8.1 Uster Tensojet ……………………………………………………….. 6-72
2.9 Classimat Defects ………………………………………………………. 6-73
2.10 Yarn Quality Statistics of 100% Cotton Carded Ring
Spun Yarns ………………………………………………………………… 6-74
2.10.1 Yarn Quality …………………………………………………………. 6-74
2.10.3 CLASSIMAT Defects ……………………………………………. 6-77
2.10.2 Imperfections ………………………………………………………… 6-77
2.10.4 Tensile Properties ………………………………………………….. 6-78
2.10.5 HV Tensile Properties ……………………………………………. 6-81
2.11 Standard Tolerances for Yarn Spun on the Cotton
System ………………………………………………………………………. 6-85
2.11.1 Strength ……………………………………………………………….. 6-85
2.11.2 Yarn Number ………………………………………………………… 6-85
2.11.3 Twist ……………………………………………………………………. 6-85
2.11.4 Extractable Matter …………………………………………………. 6-85
2.11.5 Appearance …………………………………………………………… 6-85
2.11.6 Uniformity ……………………………………………………………. 6-86
2.12 New Developments in Testing …………………………………….. 6-86
2.12.1 Uster® Qualiprofile ………………………………………………… 6-86
2.12.2 Uster® Lab Expert …………………………………………………. 6-87
Section 3 Woven Fabric Inspection and Testing ……………….. 6-88
3.1 Woven Fabric Testing ………………………………………………… 6-88
3.1.1 Fabric Construction ……………………………………………….. 6-88
3.1.2 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance … 6-91
3.1.3 Fabric Strength ……………………………………………………… 6-94
3.1.4 Relationship Between Strip Test & Grab Test ……………. 6-95
3.2 Woven Fabric Inspection System ……………………………….. 6-95
3.2.1 4 Point System ………………………………………………………. 6-95
3.2.2 10 Point System …………………………………………………….. 6-98
3.2.3 Graniteville “78” System of Visual Quality Evaluation
for Woven and Knitted Fabrics ……………………………….. 6-99
Section 4 Knitted Fabric Inspection and Testing ……………….. 6-101
4.1 Knitted Fabric Testing ……………………………………………….. 6-101
4.1.1 Fabric Construction ……………………………………………….. 6-101
4.1.2 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance … 6-102
4.1.3 Fabric Strength Testing ………………………………………….. 6-102
4.2 Knitted Fabric Inspection Systems …………………………….. 16-02
4.2.1 The KTA System for Circular Knitted Fabrics …………… 6-102
4.2.2 The KTA System for Raschel Knitted Fabrics …………… 6-104
4.2.3 The KTA System for Tricot Fabrics …………………………. 6-107
Section 5 Fabric Quality and Performance ……………………….. 6-113
5.1 Quality Standard and Performance Tests for Apparel …. 6-113
5.1.2 Quality Guideline for Fabrics Containing Lycra® 6-116
5.2 US Standard for Flammability …………………………………… 6-120
5.2.1 Flammable Fabrics Act Standards – USA …………………. 6-120
5.2.2 Federal Test Method Standard 191 – Textile Test
Methods ……………………………………………………………….. 6-122
5.2.3 Miscellaneous Tests ……………………………………………….. 6-123
5.3 Woven Fabric Defect Description and Cause ………………. 6-124
5.4 Illustrations of Woven Fabric Faults ………………………….. 6-129
5.5 Knitted Fabric Defect Description and Cause …………….. 6-136
5.6 Illustrations of Knitted Fabric Faults …………………………. 6-140