Environmental Science, Sixteenth Edition
By William P. Cunningham, Mary Ann Cunningham, Catherine M. O’Reilly and Katherine E. Winsett
Contents:
Preface xiv
Introduction: Learning to Learn 1
Case Study How Can I Do Well in Environmental
Science? 2
L.1 HOW CAN I GET AN A IN THIS CLASS? 3
What are good study habits? 3
How can you use this textbook effectively? 4
Will this be on the test? 5
L.2 THINKING ABOUT THINKING 5
How do you tell the news from the noise? 5
Applying critical thinking 6
1 Understanding Our Environment 8
Case Study Sustainable Development Goals for Kibera 9
1.1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 10
Environmental science is about understanding where we live 10
Major themes in environmental science 11
What Do You Think? Calculating Your Ecological
Footprint 15
1.2 WHERE DO OUR IDEAS ABOUT OUR ENVIRONMENT COME
FROM? 16
Current ideas have followed industrialization 16
Stage 1. Resource waste inspired pragmatic, utilitarian
conservation 16
Stage 2. Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the preservation
movement 17
Stage 3. Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental
movement 18
Stage 4. Environmental quality is tied to social progress 18
Youth leadership and people of color are transforming
environmental ideas 19
1.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20
Affluence is a goal and a liability 20
Is sustainable development possible? 22
The UN has identified 17 Sustainable Development Goals 23
The Millennium Development Goals were largely successful 24
Development depends on how wealthy countries
allocate spending 24
1.4 CORE CONCEPTS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 25
How do we describe resource use? 25
Planetary boundaries define broad limits 26
Indigenous peoples often protect biodiversity 27
Contents
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS, FAITH, AND JUSTICE 27
We can extend moral value to people and things 28
Many faiths promote conservation and justice 28
Environmental justice integrates civil rights and environmental
protection 29
Data Analysis Working with Graphs 32
2 Principles of Science and Systems 33
Case Study Snapshot Serengeti 34
2.1 WHAT IS SCIENCE? 35
Science depends on skepticism and accuracy 35
Deductive and inductive reasoning are both useful 36
Testable hypotheses and theories are essential tools 36
Understanding probability helps reduce uncertainty 37
Exploring Science Why Do Scientists Answer Questions with
a Number? 38
Statistics can indicate the probability that your
results were random 39
Experimental design can reduce bias 39
Models are an important experimental strategy 40
2.2 SYSTEMS INVOLVE INTERACTIONS 41
Systems can be described in terms of their
characteristics 41
Systems may exhibit stability 43
2.3 SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT 43
Detecting pseudoscience relies on independent, critical
thinking 44
Uncertainty, proof, and group identity 45
Data Analysis 47
3 Matter, Energy, and Life 48
Case Study Death by Fertilizer: Hypoxia in the Gulf of
Mexico 49
3.1 ELEMENTS OF LIFE 50
Atoms, elements, and compounds 50
Chemical bonds hold molecules together 51
Unique properties of water 52
Ions react and bond to form compounds 52
Organic compounds have a carbon backbone 53
Cells are the fundamental units of life 54
Exploring Science Gene Editing 55
3.2 ENERGY FOR LIFE 56
Energy varies in intensity 56
Thermodynamics regulates energy transfers 56
Ecosystems run on energy 57
Photosynthesis captures energy; respiration releases that energy 58
3.3 FROM SPECIES TO ECOSYSTEMS 60
Ecosystems include living and nonliving parts 60
Food webs link species of different trophic levels 60
Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels 62
3.4 MATERIAL CYCLES 64
The hydrologic cycle redistributes water 64
Carbon cycles through earth, air, water, and life 65
Nitrogen occurs in many forms 66
Phosphorus follows a one-way path 67
Data Analysis Inspect the Chesapeake’s Report Card 70
4 Evolution, Biological Communities, and Species
Interactions 71
Case Study Seagrass Meadows, the Planet’s Hidden
Productivity Powerhouse 72
4.1 EVOLUTION PRODUCES SPECIES DIVERSITY 73
Evolution occurs through reproduction, variation, and natural
selection 74
All species live within limits 74
An ecological niche is a species’ environment and its ecological
role 75
Resource partitioning can reduce competition 77
Speciation, the process of creating new species, maintains
natural diversity 78
Evolutionary change is typically slow 79
Taxonomy describes relationships among species 79
4.2 SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS 80
Predator-prey dynamics assert selective pressure 80
Competition occurs between and within species 82
Symbiosis involves long-term interaction between species 83
Exploring Science Say Hello to Your 90 Trillion Little
Friends 85
Keystone species have disproportionate influence 86
4.3 COMMUNITY PROPERTIES AFFECT SPECIES, POPULATIONS, AND
PRODUCTIVITY 87
Community dynamics involves diversity, abundance, and
distribution of species 87
Complexity and connectedness are important ecological
indicators 88
Biological communities vary in productivity 89
What Can You Do? Working Locally for Ecological
Diversity 90
4.4 SYSTEM CHANGE AND RESILIENCE 90
Ecological succession involves changes in community
composition 90
Biological communities may be adapted to disturbance 91
The adaptive cycle explains a system’s response to
disturbance 92
Systems can shift abruptly 93
Resilience is the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and
maintain its historic identity 94
Data Analysis SeagrassSpotter 96
5 Biomes: Global Patterns of Life 97
Case Study Shifting Biomes, Shifting
Ways of Life? 98
5.1 TERRESTRIAL BIOMES 99
Tropical moist forests have rain year-round 100
Exploring Science How Do We Describe Climate
Regions? 101
Tropical seasonal forests have yearly dry seasons 102
Tropical savannas and grasslands support few trees 102
Deserts can be hot or cold, but all are dry 102
Temperate grasslands have rich soils 103
Temperate shrublands have summer drought 104
Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous 104
Boreal forests occur at high latitudes 105
Tundra can freeze in any month 105
5.2 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS 106
Depth controls light penetration and temperature 107
Coastal zones support rich, diverse communities 108
5.3 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS 110
Temperature and light vary with depth in lakes 111
Wetlands are shallow and productive 111
5.4 HUMAN DISTURBANCE 112
Agriculture is responsible for most land conversion 112
Small systems are most at risk 113
Data Analysis Reading Climate Graphs 115
6 Population Biology 116
Case Study Flying Fish 117
6.1 DYNAMICS OF POPULATION GROWTH 118
We can describe growth symbolically 118
Exponential growth involves continuous change 119
Doubling times and the rule of 70 119
Exponential growth leads to crashes 119
Logistic growth slows with population increase 119
These values help predict sustainable yield 120
Species respond to limits differently:
r- and K-selected species 121
What Do You Think? Too Many Deer? 122
6.2 FACTORS THAT REGULATE POPULATION GROWTH 123
Survivorship curves show life histories 123
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect births and deaths 123
Interspecific interactions are between species; intraspecific
interactions are within a species 124
Stress and crowding can affect reproduction 125
Density-dependent effects can be dramatic 125
Exploring Science How Do You Measure
Populations? 126
6.3 POPULATION SIZE AND CONSERVATION 126
Small, isolated populations are vulnerable 126
Genetic diversity may help a population survive 127
Population viability can depend on population size 128
Data Analysis Experimenting with Population
Growth 130
7 Human Populations 131
Case Study China Is Aging 132
7.1 PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION 133
How many of us are there? 133
Human populations grew slowly until relatively
recently 134
Do large families cause poverty, or does poverty cause
large families? 135
Different theories imply different solutions 136
Technology can change carrying capacity 136
Environmental Impact (I) = PAT 136
Population growth can power innovation 137
7.2 WAYS WE DESCRIBE GROWTH 137
We describe growth rates in several ways 137
Fertility rate is the number of children per woman 138
Fertility rates are falling globally 139
7.3 WHAT FACTORS AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH? 140
Development promotes a demographic transition 140
Long life expectancy increases populations 141
Age distributions determine future growth 142
Pronatalist factors encourage fertility 142
Girls’ education and child health affect fertility rates 144
Major events influence birth rates 144
Family planning gives us choices 145
Could we have a birth dearth? 145
What Do You Think? China’s One-Child Policy 146
7.4 WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF GROWTH? 147
Development is seen as the main path to slower growth 147
Migration is a growing concern 147
The demographic trap and lifeboat ethics describe
challenges of poverty 148
Social justice is an important consideration 148
Our choices now determine our future 149
Data Analysis Population Change over Time 151
8 Environmental Health and Toxicology 152
Case Study PFAS: Miracle or Menace? 153
8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 154
What is health? 154
The global disease burden is changing 154
Chronic conditions now outweigh infectious diseases 155
Major causes of death have also changed 155
Infectious diseases still kill millions of people 156
Emergent diseases often come from wildlife contact 156
Novel diseases also threaten wild species 158
Amphibians are especially vulnerable 158
Multiple stressors aid novel parasites 158
What Do You Think? High temperatures and heat stress:
How does global warming affect our health? 159
Overuse of antibiotics breeds super bugs 160
What would better health cost? 160
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 161
How do toxic substances affect us? 162
What Can You Do? Tips for Staying Healthy 163
How does diet influence health? 164
8.3 THE MOVEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE OF TOXIC
SUBSTANCES 164
Compounds dissolve either in water or in fat 165
Children have higher sensitivity 166
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification
increase concentrations of chemicals 166
Persistence makes some materials a greater threat 167
POPs are an especially serious problem 167
Synergistic interactions can increase toxicity 168
Our bodies degrade and excrete toxic substances 168
8.4 ASSESSING TOXICITY AND RISK 169
We usually test toxic effects on lab animals 169
Toxicity varies widely 170
Acute and chronic doses and effects differ 171
Detectable levels aren’t always dangerous 171
Risk perception isn’t always rational 171
How much risk is acceptable? 172
Circumstances influence our response to risk 172
Setting health policies is complex 173
Data Analysis Comparing Health Risks 176
9 Food and Hunger 177
Case Study Food Security in the Sahel 178
9.1 WORLD FOOD AND NUTRITION 179
Millions of people are still chronically hungry 180
Famines usually have political and social causes 181
Ending hunger requires nutritious foods 181
Macronutrients fuel the body 182
Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals 183
Food insecurity is widespread and persistent 183
Global factors can cause price spikes 183
9.2 KEY FOOD SOURCES 184
Rising meat production has costs and benefits 185
What Do You Think? Diet for a Small Planet? 186
Seafood is our only commercial wild-caught protein source 186
Most commercial fishing operates on an industrial scale 187
Aquaculture produces over half our seafood 188
Antibiotics are overused in intensive production 189
Food systems are vulnerable to climate change 189
9.3 THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 190
Green revolution crops are high responders 191
Genetic engineering moves DNA among species 191
Most GMOs have been engineered for pest resistance or
herbicide tolerance 192
Safety of GMOs is widely debated 193
9.4 FOOD PRODUCTION POLICIES 193
Is genetic engineering about food production? 194
Farm policies can also protect the land 195
Data Analysis Exploring Global Food Data 196
10 Farming: Conventional and Sustainable
Practices 197
Case Study Farming the Cerrado 198
10.1 WHAT IS SOIL? 199
Soils are complex ecosystems 199
Healthy soil fauna can determine soil fertility 200
Your food comes mostly from the A horizon 201
10.2 HOW DO WE USE, ABUSE, AND CONSERVE SOILS? 202
Arable land is unevenly distributed 203
Soil losses threaten farm productivity 203
Wind and water cause widespread erosion 204
Desertification affects arid-land soils 206
Irrigation is needed but can be inefficient 206
Plants need nutrients, but not too much 206
Conventional farming uses abundant fossil fuels 207
Contours and ground cover reduce runoff 207
Erosion control measures protect, or even build, soils 208
Exploring Science Ancient Terra Preta Shows How to
Build Soils 209
Carbon farming could be a key climate action 209
10.3 PESTS AND PESTICIDES 210
Modern pesticides provide benefits but also
create health risks 211
Organophosphates and chlorinated hydrocarbons are
dominant pesticides 212
What Do You Think? Shade-Grown Coffee and Cocoa 212
Pesticides have profound environmental effects 215
POPs accumulate in remote places 216
Pesticides often impair human health 217
10.4 ORGANIC AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 217
Can sustainable practices feed the world’s growing
population? 218
What does “organic” mean? 218
Strategic management can reduce pests 219
What Can You Do? Controlling Pests 219
Useful organisms can help us control pests 220
IPM uses a combination of techniques 221
Low-input agriculture aids farmers and their land 221
Consumers’ choices play an important role 222
What Do You Think? Community Farming 223
Data Analysis Graphing Changes in Pesticide Use 225
11 Biodiversity: Preserving Species 226
Case Study How Wolves Can Change Rivers 227
11.1 BIODIVERSITY AND THE SPECIES CONCEPT 228
What is biodiversity? 228
Species are defined in different ways 228
Molecular techniques are rewriting taxonomy 229
How many species are there? 229
Hot spots have exceptional biodiversity but are threatened 230
We benefit from biodiversity in many ways 231
Biodiversity provides ecological services and aesthetic
and cultural benefits 232
11.2 WHAT THREATENS BIODIVERSITY? 233
Mass extinctions appear in the fossil record 233
Are we entering a sixth extinction? 234
Habitat destruction is the principal HIPPO factor 234
Invasive species displace resident species 235
Pollution and population are direct human impacts 236
Climate change transforms ecosystems 237
Overharvesting results when there is a market for wild species 238
Exploring Science Where Are All the Insects? 239
Overharvesting is often illegal and involves endangered species 240
Island ecosystems are especially vulnerable to invasive species 240
11.3 ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION 241
Hunting and fishing laws were the first biodiversity protections 241
The Endangered Species Act is a powerful tool for biodiversity
protection 241
Recovery plans rebuild populations of endangered species 242
Private land is vital for species protection 243
Endangered species protection is controversial 244
11.4 REBUILDING BIODIVERSITY 245
We can protect biodiversity locally 245
What Can You Do? You Can Help Preserve Biodiversity 246
Gap analysis promotes regional planning 246
International treaties try to control trade in species 246
Zoos can help preserve wildlife 247
Data Analysis Exploring Local Biodiversity 249
12 Biodiversity: Preserving Landscapes 250
Case Study Ecosystems in Transition 251
12.1 WORLD FORESTS 252
Boreal and tropical forests are most abundant 252
Forests provide valuable products 254
Tropical forests are especially threatened 255
Local and global demand drive deforestation 256
Indigenous groups often lead forest protection efforts 257
Exploring Science Palm Oil and Endangered Species 258
Debt-for-nature swaps and REDD use finance for protection 259
Logging threatens temperate forests 259
Global warming and fire are growing threats 260
What Can You Do? Lowering Your Forest Impacts 260
12.2 GRASSLANDS 261
Grazing can be sustainable or damaging 262
Overgrazing threatens U.S. rangelands 262
Ranchers are experimenting with new methods 263
12.3 PARKS AND PRESERVES 264
Some of the most important natural areas may be in your
neighborhood 264
Levels of protection vary in world preserves 264
“Paper parks” are not really protected 266
Marine ecosystems need greater protection 267
Conservation and economic development can work
together 268
Many preserves support traditional resource uses 268
What Can You Do? Being a Responsible Ecotourist 269
What Do You Think? Monuments Under Attack 270
Species survival can depend on preserve size 271
Data Analysis Global Forest Watch 273
13 Restoration Ecology 274
Case Study Restoring Coral Reefs 275
13.1 HELPING NATURE HEAL 276
Restoration projects range from modest to ambitious 277
Restore to what? 277
All restoration projects involve some
common components 278
Origins of restoration 279
Sometimes we can simply let nature heal itself 280
Native species often need help to become reestablished 281
13.2 RESTORATION IS GOOD FOR HUMAN ECONOMIES AND
CULTURES 282
Tree planting can improve our quality of life 283
Fire is often an important restoration tool 283
What Can You Do? Ecological Restoration in Your Own
Neighborhood 284
13.3 RESTORING PRAIRIES 286
Fire is also crucial for prairie restoration 286
Huge areas of shortgrass prairie are being preserved 287
Exploring Science The Monarch Highway 288
Bison help maintain prairies 290
13.4 RESTORING WETLANDS AND STREAMS 291
Restoring flow helps rivers heal 291
Replumbing the Everglades is one of the costliest restoration
efforts ever 292
Wetland mitigation is challenging 294
Wetland and stream restoration provide multiple benefits 294
13.5 HOW EFFECTIVE IS RESTORATION? 297
Severely degraded or polluted sites can be repaired or
reconstructed 297
Restoring function is more challenging 298
Data Analysis Concept Maps 300
14 Geology and Earth Resources 301
Case Study Salmon or Copper? 302
14.1 EARTH PROCESSES AND MINERALS 303
Earth is a dynamic planet 303
Tectonic processes move continents 304
Rocks are composed of minerals 305
Rocks and minerals are recycled constantly 306
Weathering breaks down rocks 307
14.2 EARTH RESOURCES 307
Metals are especially valuable resources 308
Fossil fuels originated as peat and plankton 308
Exploring Science Rare Earth Minerals 309
Conserving resources saves energy and materials 310
Resource substitution reduces demand 311
14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF RESOURCE EXTRACTION 311
Different mining techniques pose different risks to
water and air 312
Ore processing emits acids and metals 312
High-value minerals can support corruption 313
14.4 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 314
What Do You Think? Should We Revise Mining Laws? 315
Earthquakes usually occur on plate margins 316
Human-induced earthquakes are becoming more common 317
Tsunamis can be more damaging than the earthquakes
that trigger them 317
Volcanoes eject gas and ash, as well as lava 318
Landslides and mass wasting can bury villages 319
Floods are the greatest geological hazard 319
Beaches erode easily, especially in storms 320
Data Analysis Mapping Geological Hazards 322
15 Climate Systems and Climate Change 323
Case Study Climate Action in California: No Longer Just
Talking About the Weather 324
15.1 WHAT IS THE ATMOSPHERE? 325
The land surface absorbs solar energy to warm our world 327
Greenhouse gases capture energy selectively 328
Atmospheric circulation redistributes energy 328
15.2 REGIONAL PATTERNS OF WEATHER 329
The Coriolis effect explains why winds seem to curve on
a weather map 329
Jet streams deflect weather systems 330
Ocean currents redistribute heat 331
Seasonal rain supports billions of people 332
Frontal systems occur where warm and cold air meet 332
Cyclonic storms can cause extensive damage 333
15.3 NATURAL CLIMATE VARIABILITY 334
Ice cores tell us about climate history 334
El Niño is an ocean–atmosphere cycle 335
15.4 ANTHROPOGENIC CLIMATE CHANGE 337
The IPCC assesses climate data for policymakers 337
Major greenhouse gases include CO2, CH4, and N2O 338
Exploring Science Black Carbon 339
Melting ice accelerates change 340
How do we know that recent change is caused by humans? 341
15.5 WHAT EFFECTS ARE WE SEEING? 341
Warming affects crops, health, and ecosystems 342
Climate change costs far more than prevention 343
Rising sea levels will flood many cities 344
Why do we still debate climate evidence? 344
15.6 CLIMATE ACTION 345
The Paris Climate Agreement establishes new goals 345
Drawdown strategies abound 345
What Do You Think? Unburnable Carbon 346
Carbon capture is needed 347
Economic solutions make progress possible 347
Wind, water, and solar could meet all our needs 348
What Can You Do? Climate Action 348
Adaptation is necessary 348
Data Analysis The U.S. National Climate Assessment 350
16 Air Pollution 351
Case Study Beijing Looks for Answers to Air Pollution 352
16.1 MAJOR POLLUTANTS IN OUR AIR 353
The Clean Air Act designates standard limits 354
Conventional pollutants are most abundant 354
Mercury, from coal, is particularly dangerous 359
What Do You Think? Politics, Public Health, and the
Minamata Convention 360
Carbon dioxide, methane, and halogens are key greenhouse
gases 361
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) can cause cancer and nerve
damage 362
Indoor air can be worse than outdoor air 362
16.2 ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES 363
Temperature inversions trap pollutants 363
Wind currents carry pollutants worldwide 364
Exploring Science The Great London Smog and Pollution
Monitoring 365
Chlorine destroys ozone in the stratosphere 366
The Montreal Protocol was a resounding success 367
16.3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 368
How does pollution make us sick? 369
Sulfur and nitrogen emissions produce acid rain 369
Acid deposition damages ecosystems and infrastructure 370
16.4 POLLUTION CONTROL 371
Pollutants can be captured after combustion 371
What Can You Do? Reducing Pollution and
Saving Energy 371
Clean air legislation is controversial but effective 372
Clean air protections help the economy and public health 373
In developing areas, rapid growth can outpace pollution
controls 374
Air quality improves where controls are implemented 375
Data Analysis How Is the Air Quality in Your Town? 377
17 Water Use and Management 378
Case Study When Will Lake Mead Go Dry? 379
17.1 WATER RESOURCES 380
The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water 380
Water supplies are unevenly distributed 380
Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on earth 382
Glaciers, ice, and snow contain most surface fresh water 382
Groundwater stores large resources 383
Rivers, lakes, and wetlands cycle quickly 384
17.2 WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE 385
Many countries suffer water scarcity or water stress 385
The West has always had droughts 386
Water use is increasing 386
Agriculture dominates water use 387
Industry and households withdraw less but often contaminate
water 387
17.3 FRESHWATER SHORTAGES 388
Groundwater is an essential but declining resource 389
Groundwater overdrafts have long-term impacts 390
Diversion projects redistribute water 391
Exploring Science Measuring Invisible Water 392
Dams have diverse environmental and social impacts 393
Dams have a limited lifespan 394
Climate change threatens water supplies 395
Water is a growing cause of conflict 395
17.4 WATER CONSERVATION 396
Desalination is expensive but needed 396
Exploring Science How Does Desalination Work? 397
Domestic conservation has important impacts 397
What Can You Do? Saving Water and Preventing
Pollution 398
Recycling can reduce consumption 398
Prices and policies have often discouraged conservation 399
Data Analysis Graphing Global Water Stress and Scarcity 401
18 Water Pollution 402
Case Study India’s Holy River 403
18.1 WATER POLLUTION 404
Water pollution is anything that degrades water quality 404
Infectious agents, or pathogens, cause diseases 405
Low oxygen levels indicate nutrient contamination 406
Nutrient enrichment leads to cultural eutrophication 407
Eutrophication can cause toxic tides and “dead zones” 408
Heavy metals cause nerve damage 408
Acidic runoff can destroy aquatic ecosystems 409
Organic pollutants include drugs, pesticides, and industrial
products 409
Oil spills are common and often intentional 410
Sediment also degrades water quality 410
Thermal pollution threatens sensitive organisms 411
18.2 WATER QUALITY TODAY 412
The Clean Water Act protects our water 412
Nonpoint sources are difficult to control 412
Water pollution is especially serious in developing countries 413
Water treatment improves safety 414
Is bottled water safer? 415
Groundwater is hard to monitor and clean 415
There are few controls on ocean pollution 416
18.3 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 417
Controlling nonpoint sources requires land management 417
Combined sewer overflows pollute surface waters 418
Human waste disposal occurs naturally when
concentrations are low 418
Septic systems work in low densities 418
Municipal treatment plants remove pathogens 419
Low-cost systems use natural processes 420
Exploring Science Inexpensive Water Purification 421
Water remediation may involve containment, extraction, or
phytoremediation 421
“Living machines” use plants to capture contaminants 422
What Can You Do? Steps You Can Take to Improve
Water Quality 423
18.4 WATER LEGISLATION 423
The Clean Water Act was ambitious, bipartisan, and
largely successful 423
Clean water reauthorization remains contentious 424
A variety of rules protect water quality 425
Data Analysis Examining Pollution Sources 426
19 Conventional Energy 427
Case Study Oil and Politics 428
19.1 ENERGY RESOURCES AND USES 429
The future of energy is not the past 429
How do we describe energy? 429
Fossil fuels still supply most of the world’s energy 430
How much energy do we use? 430
19.2 COAL 431
Coal resources are greater than we can use 432
Coal use is declining in the United States and Europe 432
Is clean coal technology an option? 434
19.3 OIL 434
Extreme oil has extended our supplies 435
Refineries produce useful products and hazardous pollutants 436
Oil is a boom and bust industry 437
Indigenous groups have challenged pipelines 437
What Do You Think? Water Protectors at Standing Rock 438
19.4 NATURAL GAS 439
Most of the world’s currently known natural gas is in a few
countries 439
Fracking has expanded gas supplies 440
Getting gas to market is a challenge 441
What Do You Think? The Fracking Debate 442
Methane hydrates occur in deep ocean sediment 442
19.5 NUCLEAR POWER 443
How do nuclear reactors work? 443
Reactor designs vary in safety 445
Breeder reactors could extend the life of our nuclear fuel 446
We lack safe storage for radioactive wastes 446
Decommissioning nuclear plants is costly 447
Opinions about nuclear futures vary 447
Data Analysis Comparing Energy Use and Standards of
Living 449
20 Sustainable Energy 450
Case Study A Renewable Energy Transition 451
20.1 ENERGY EFFICIENCY 452
Energy conservation is the first step 452
Green buildings cut energy costs 453
Transportation could be far more efficient 454
Exploring Science Greening Gotham: Can New York Reach
Its 80 by 50 Goal? 455
What Can You Do? Steps You Can Take to Save Energy 457
20.2 SOLAR ENERGY 457
Solar thermal systems collect heat 457
Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly 459
Solar works at household or community scales 460
20.3 WIND 461
Capacity and efficiency are important questions in power
production 461
Wind could meet all our energy needs 462
Wind is a source of rural income 462
Do turbines kill birds? 463
20.4 HYDROPOWER, BIOMASS, AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 464
Most hydroelectricity comes from large dams 464
Tides and waves contain significant energy 465
Biomass is an ancient and modern energy source 466
Methane from biomass can be clean and efficient 466
U.S. policy prioritizes ethanol and biodiesel 467
High-temperature geothermal produces electricity 468
20.5 WHAT DOES AN ENERGY TRANSITION LOOK LIKE? 468
The grid will need improvement 468
Storage options are changing rapidly 469
Fuel cells release electricity from chemical bonds 470
Heat pumps provide efficient, electric-powered cooling and
heating 470
Wind, water, and solar are good answers 471
Data Analysis Energy Units 474
21 Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste 476
Case Study Plastic Seas 477
21.1 WHAT DO WE DO WITH WASTE? 478
The waste stream is everything we throw away 479
Open dumping releases trash into the air and water 479
Landfills receive most U.S. waste 480
We often export waste to countries ill-equipped to handle it 481
What Do You Think? Who Will Take Our Waste? 482
Incineration produces energy from trash 483
21.2 SHRINKING THE WASTE STREAM 484
Recycling saves raw materials 484
Separating recyclables keeps them usable 485
Less than 9 percent of plastics are recycled 485
Plastics bans are increasing 485
Compost and biogas are useful products 486
Appliances and e-waste must be demanufactured 486
Reuse is more efficient than recycling 487
What Can You Do? Reducing Waste 487
Reducing waste is the best option 488
21.3 HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTES 488
Hazardous waste laws try to protect the public 489
Superfund sites are listed for federal cleanup 490
Brownfields present both liability and opportunity 491
What Can You Do? Alternatives to Hazardous
Household Chemicals 492
Hazardous waste can be recycled or contained 492
Substances can be converted to safer forms 492
Permanent storage is often needed 493
Exploring Science Phytoremediation: Cleaning Up Toxic
Waste with Plants 494
Data Analysis How Much Do You Know about
Recycling? 496
22 Urbanization and Sustainable Cities 497
Case Study Cities Show the Way in Climate
Policy 498
22.1 URBANIZATION 499
Cities have specialized functions 499
Large cities are expanding rapidly 500
Developing areas have urbanized rapidly 501
Push and pull factors motivate people to move to cities 502
22.2 URBAN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD 503
Pollution and water shortages affect developing cities 503
Exploring Science Sinking Cities Amid Rising Seas 504
Many cities lack adequate housing 505
22.3 URBAN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPED WORLD 506
Urban sprawl consumes land and resources 506
Sprawl gains hidden subsidies from cities 507
Transportation is crucial in city development 508
Public transit can make cities more livable 509
22.4 SUSTAINABLE URBANISM AND SMART GROWTH 510
Garden cities and new towns were early examples of smart
growth 510
Mixed uses make cities more livable 510
Open-space design preserves landscapes 512
What Do You Think? Vauban: A Car-Free
Neighborhood 513
Data Analysis Plotting Urban and Economic Indicators 515
23 Ecological Economics 516
Case Study Using Economics to Fight Climate
Change 517
23.1 PERSPECTIVES ON THE ECONOMY 518
Can economic development be sustainable? 518
Resources can be renewable or nonrenewable 518
Classical economics examines supply and demand 520
Neoclassical economics emphasizes growth 521
23.2 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 522
Ecological economics accounts for the value of ecosystems 522
Ecosystem services include provisioning, regulating, and
aesthetic values 523
Exploring Science What’s the Value of Nature? 524
23.3 POPULATION, SCARCITY, AND TECHNOLOGY 525
Are we about to run out of fossil fuels? 525
Common property resources are a classic problem in
ecological economics 526
Scarcity can lead to innovation 527
Carrying capacity is not necessarily fixed 527
Prior assumptions shape our models of growth 528
23.4 MEASURING GROWTH 529
GNP is our dominant growth measure 529
Alternate measures account for well-being 529
Cost–benefit analysis aims to optimize benefits 530
23.5 CAN MARKETS REDUCE POLLUTION? 531
Sulfur dioxide trading offers a good model 532
Emissions trading rewards efficiency 532
Exploring Science Green Jobs Versus Fossil Fuels 533
Are carbon taxes a better answer? 534
23.6 GREEN DEVELOPMENT AND BUSINESS 534
International trade brings benefits but also intensifies
inequities 535
Microlending helps the poorest of the poor 535
Green business involves efficiency and creative solutions 536
Efficiency starts with product design 536
Green consumerism gives the public a voice 537
What Can You Do? Personally Responsible Economy 537
Environmental protection creates jobs 537
What Do You Think? Could We Have a Green New
Deal? 538
Data Analysis Evaluating the Limits to Growth 540
24 Environmental Policy, Law, and
Planning 541
Case Study Turtles Return to Archie Carr 542
24.1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN POLICY 543
Basic principles guide environmental policy 543
Money influences policy 544
Public awareness and action shape policy 544
Broad participation can defend diverse interests 545
Is top-down or bottom-up policy more effective? 545
24.2 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 547
NEPA (1969) establishes public oversight 547
The Clean Air Act (1970) regulates air emissions 548
The Clean Water Act (1972) protects surface water 548
The Endangered Species Act (1973) protects both plants
and animals 549
The Superfund Act (1980) lists hazardous sites 550
24.3 HOW ARE POLICIES MADE? 550
Congress and legislatures vote on statutes (laws) 551
Legislative riders sidestep public debate 551
Lobbying influences government 551
Judges decide case law 552
Landmark cases have vast impacts 553
Law suits require legal standing 553
Criminal law prosecutes lawbreakers 554
Executive agencies make rules and enforce laws 554
Regulatory agencies oversee policies 555
Regulatory capture undermines agency work 555
How much government do we want? 556
24.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 556
Countries are often motivated to participate 557
The UNFCCC seeks climate progress 558
The Paris Agreement set a 2°C goal 558
Global policies seek to protect biodiversity, air, and water 559
Enforcement often depends on national pride 559
Data Analysis Examine Your Environmental Laws 561
25 What Then Shall We Do? 562
Case Study The Dawn of a New Era 563
25.1 MAKING A DIFFERENCE 564
Environmental literacy has lasting importance 564
Citizen science lets everyone participate 565
Exploring Science Doing Citizen Science with eBird 566
Environmental careers range from engineering to
education to arts 566
Green business and technology are growing fast 567
25.2 WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO? 567
All choices are environmental choices 568
What Can You Do? Reducing Your Impact 568
Green consumerism encourages corporations to have an
environmental conscience 569
You are a citizen, as well as a consumer 569
You can learn leadership 570
You can own this class 570
25.3 HOW CAN WE WORK TOGETHER? 570
National organizations influence policy 571
New players bring energy to policy making 572
International NGOs mobilize many people 572
25.4 CAMPUS GREENING 573
Schools provide environmental leadership 573
What Do You Think? Fossil Fuel Divestment 575
A green campus is an educational opportunity 575
25.5 SUSTAINABILITY IS A GLOBAL CHALLENGE 576
Sustainable development means social, environmental, and
economic goals 576
Data Analysis Campus Environmental Audit 579
Glossary 580
Periodic Table of the Elements 590
Index 591