Investigating Oceanography, Fourth Edition
By Keith A. Sverdrup and Raphael M. Kudela
Contents:
Preface xi
Prologue
The History of
Oceanography 3
P.1 The Early Times 4
P.2 The Middle Ages 7
P.3 Voyages of Discovery 8
P.4 The Importance of Charts
and Navigational Information 10
P.5 Ocean Science Begins 12
P.6 Early Expeditions of the Nineteenth
and Twentieth Centuries 14
The Challenger Expedition 14
The Voyage of the Fram 15
The Meteor Expedition 15
P.7 Ocean Science in Modern Times 15
Establishing Oceanographic Institutions 15
Large-Scale, Direct Exploration of the Oceans 16
Diving in “FLIP,” the Floating Instrument Platform 17
Diving in Planning and Executing a Successful
Oceanographic Expedition 21
P.8 Oceanography from Space 23
The View from Space 23
Oceanographic Applications for Geology 25
Oceanographic Applications for Physics 27
Oceanographic Applications for Chemistry and Biology 28
Our Wired World 29
A Glimpse of Our Future 30
Summary 32
C H A P T E R 1
The Water Planet 35
1.1 Cosmic Beginnings 36
Origin of the Universe 36
Origin of Our Solar System 37
Extraterrestrial Oceans 38
Diving in Origin of the Oceans 40
Early Planet Earth 41
1.2 Earth’s Age and Time 41
Earth’s Age 41
Geologic Time 42
Natural Time Periods 44
1.3 Earth’s Shape 45
Keith A. Sverdrup
1.4 Where on Earth Are You? 46
Latitude and Longitude 46
Measuring Latitude 48
Longitude and Time 48
1.5 Modern Navigation 49
1.6 Earth Is a Water Planet 50
Water on Earth’s Surface 50
Hydrologic Cycle 50
Reservoirs and Residence Time 51
Distribution of Land and Water 52
One World Ocean Divided into Five 52
Hypsographic Curve 55
Summary 56
Key Terms 56
Study Problems 57
C H A P T E R 2
Earth Structure
and Plate Tectonics 59
2.1 Earth’s Interior 60
Earthquake Waves Reveal Earth’s
Layers 60
Model 1: Layers with
Different Mineral and Chemical
Compositions 61
Model 2: Layers with Different
Strengths and Physical Properties 63
Isostasy 64
2.2 History of a Theory: Continental Drift 65
2.3 Evidence for a New Theory: Seafloor Spreading 67
Evidence for Crustal Motion 68
2.4 Plate Tectonics 74
Plates and Their Boundaries 75
Divergent Boundaries 75
Transform Boundaries 77
Convergent Boundaries 78
Continental Margins 81
2.5 Motion of the Plates 81
Mechanisms of Motion 81
Rates of Motion 82
Hotspots 84
2.6 History of the Continents 85
The Breakup of Pangaea 85
Before Pangaea 86
Summary 87
Key Terms 88
Study Problems 88
C H A P T E R 3
The Sea Floor
and Its Sediments 91
3.1 Measuring the Depths 92
3.2 Seafloor Provinces 95
Continental Margins and
Submarine Canyons 96
Abyssal Plains 97
Ridges, Rises, and Trenches 98
Diving in Exploring the Mariana Trench 100
3.3 Sediments 102
Why Study Sediments? 102
Classification Methods 102
Particle Size 102
Location and Rates of Deposition 103
Source and Chemistry 104
Patterns of Deposit on the Sea Floor 108
Formation of Rock 111
Sampling Methods 111
Sediments as Historical Records 112
3.4 Seabed Resources 114
Sand and Gravel 114
Phosphorite 115
Oil and Gas 115
Gas Hydrates 115
Manganese Nodules 116
Sulfide Mineral Deposits 117
Summary 117
Key Terms 118
Study Problems 119
C H A P T E R 4
The Physical Properties
of Water 121
4.1 The Water Molecule 122
4.2 Temperature and Heat 122
4.3 Changes of State 125
4.4 Specific Heat 126
4.5 Cohesion, Surface Tension,
and Viscosity 127
4.6 Density 127
The Effect of Pressure 128
The Effect of Temperature 128
The Effect of Salt 129
4.7 Transmission of Energy 130
Heat 130
Light 131
Sound 134
Diving in The Acoustic World of Marine Organisms and the
Problem of Anthropogenic Noise 137
Summary 139
Key Terms 139
Study Problems 139
Keith A. Sverdrup
Keith A. Sverdrup
C H A P T E R 5
The Chemistry
of Seawater 141
5.1 Salts 142
Dissolving Ability of Water 142
Units of Concentration 142
Ocean Salinities 143
Dissolved Salts 144
Sources of Salt 144
Regulating the Salt Balance 145
Residence Time 147
Constant Proportions 148
Determining Salinity 148
5.2 Gases 149
Distribution with Depth 149
The Carbon Dioxide Cycle 150
The Oxygen Balance 150
Measuring the Gases 150
5.3 Carbon Dioxide and the Ocean 151
The pH of Seawater 151
The Marine Carbonate System and Buffering pH 152
Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and Ocean Acidification 153
5.4 Nutrients and Organics 154
Nutrients 154
Organics 155
5.5 Practical Considerations: Salt and Water 155
Chemical Resources 155
Desalination 155
Summary 157
Key Terms 158
Study Problems 158
C H A P T E R 6
The Atmosphere
and the Oceans 161
6.1 Heating and Cooling
Earth’s Surface 162
Distribution of Solar Radiation 162
Heat Budget 163
Annual Cycles of Solar Radiation 164
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity 166
Diving in Oceanography of Tidewater Glacier Margins:
Undergraduate Research on Svalbard 168
6.2 Sea Ice and Icebergs 170
Sea Ice 170
Icebergs 170
6.3 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 171
Structure of the Atmosphere 171
Composition of Air 172
Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect 172
Ozone 173
Diving in Clouds and Climate 174
6.4 The Atmosphere in Motion 176
Atmospheric Pressure 176
Winds on a Nonrotating Earth 176
Palo_ok/Shutterstock
Science Photo Libra/Image Source
The Effects of Rotation 177
Wind Bands 179
6.5 Modifying the Wind Bands 181
Seasonal Changes 181
The Monsoon Effect 181
The Topographic Effect 183
6.6 Hurricanes and Coastal Flooding 185
Hurricanes 185
Coastal Flooding 185
6.7 El Niño–Southern Oscillation 191
Summary 194
Key Terms 195
Study Problems 195
C H A P T E R 7
Ocean Structure
and Circulation 197
7.1 Ocean Structure 198
Variation of Temperature with
Depth 198
Variation of Salinity with Depth 199
Variation of Density with Depth 200
7.2 Thermohaline Circulation and Water Masses 202
Thermohaline Circulation 202
Water Masses 203
7.3 The Layered Oceans 205
The Atlantic Ocean 205
The Pacific Ocean 206
The Indian Ocean 206
The Arctic Ocean 206
Internal Mixing 207
7.4 What Drives the Surface Currents? 207
The Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport 208
Ocean Gyres 208
Geostrophic Flow 208
7.5 Ocean Surface Currents 209
Pacific Ocean Currents 209
Atlantic Ocean Currents 210
Indian Ocean Currents 210
Arctic Ocean Currents 210
Antarctic Currents 212
The Indonesian Throughflow 212
7.6 Current Characteristics 213
Current Speed 213
Current Volume Transport 213
Western Intensification 213
7.7 Eddies 215
7.8 Convergence and Divergence 216
Langmuir Cells 216
Permanent Zones 217
Seasonal Zones 218
7.9 Global Meridional Overturning Circulation 220
7.10 Changing Circulation Patterns 221
North Pacific Oscillations 221
North Atlantic Oscillations 221
7.11 Measuring the Currents 222
Diving in Ocean Drifters 223
Summary 226
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory
Key Terms 227
Study Problems 227
C H A P T E R 8
The Waves 229
8.1 How a Wave Begins 230
Forces Influencing Waves 230
Two Types of Wind-Generated
Waves 231
8.2 Anatomy of a Wave 232
8.3 Wave Speed 232
8.4 Deep-Water Waves in Detail 233
Deep-Water Wave Motion 233
Deep-Water Wave Speed 234
Storm Centers 234
Dispersion 234
Group Speed 235
Wave Interaction 235
Wave Height 236
Rogue Waves 238
Wave Energy 238
Wave Steepness 239
Universal Sea State Code 239
8.5 Shallow-Water Waves in Detail 239
Shallow-Water Wave Motion 239
Shallow-Water Wave Speed 240
Refraction 241
Reflection 242
Diffraction 242
8.6 The Surf Zone 243
Breakers 243
Water Transport and Rip Currents 244
Energy Release 245
8.7 Tsunami 246
Diving in The March 11, 2011, Japanese Tsunami 248
8.8 Internal Waves 251
8.9 Standing Waves 252
8.10 Practical Considerations: Energy from Waves 255
Summary 257
Key Terms 257
Study Problems 257
C H A P T E R 9
The Tides 259
9.1 Tide Patterns 260
9.2 Tide Levels 260
9.3 Tidal Currents 261
9.4 Modeling the Tides 262
The Earth-Moon System 262
Earth and Moon Rotation 263
The Sun Tide 264
Spring Tides and Neap Tides 264
Declinational Tides 265
Elliptical Orbits 267
9.5 Real Tides in Real Ocean Basins 267
The Tide Wave 267
Progressive Wave Tides 268
Standing Wave Tides 268
Tide Waves in Narrow Basins 270
9.6 Tidal Bores 270
9.7 Predicting Tides and Tidal Currents 271
Diving in Measuring Tides from Space 272
Tide Tables 273
Tidal Current Tables 273
9.8 Practical Considerations: Energy from Tides 274
Summary 276
Key Terms 277
Study Problems 277
C H A P T E R 10
Coasts, Beaches,
and Estuaries 279
10.1 Major Coastal Zones 280
10.2 Types of Coasts 280
Primary Coasts 283
Secondary Coasts 284
10.3 Anatomy of a Beach 286
10.4 Beach Dynamics 288
Natural Processes 288
Coastal Circulation 290
10.5 Beach Types 291
10.6 Modifying Beaches 292
Coastal Structures 292
The Santa Barbara Story 293
The History of Ediz Hook 294
10.7 Estuaries 295
Types of Estuaries 296
Circulation Patterns 297
Temperate-Zone Estuaries 298
10.8 Regions of High Evaporation 298
10.9 Flushing Time 299
Summary 300
Diving in Public Aquariums in Ocean
Research and Education 301
Key Terms 307
Study Problems 307
C H A P T E R 11
The Living Ocean 309
11.1 Evolution in the Marine
Environment 310
11.2 Marine Biodiversity 311
Diving in Assessing Marine
Biodiversity with Environmental
DNA 312
11.3 The Flow of Energy 314
11.4 Groups of Organisms 315
11.5 Environmental Zones 316
Dr. Matthew Fouse
Reinhard Dirscherl/agefotostock
Pelagic 316
Benthic 316
11.6 Facts of Life in the Ocean 317
Light 317
Temperature 319
Salinity 319
Diving in Bioluminescence in the Sea 320
Pressure 322
Buoyancy 323
Inorganic Nutrients 323
Dissolved Gases 324
pH 324
11.7 The Importance of Size 325
Summary 327
Key Terms 327
Study Problems 328
C H A P T E R 12
The Plankton, Productivity,
and Food Webs 331
12.1 The Marine
Photoautotrophs 332
12.2 The Plankton 333
12.3 Bacterioplankton and
Viruses 334
12.4 Phytoplankton 335
Diatoms 336
Dinoflagellates 337
Coccolithophorids 338
Cyanobacteria 339
Prasinophytes 340
Harmful Algal Blooms 340
12.5 Zooplankton 342
Diving in Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research
and Control Act 343
12.6 Primary Production 350
12.7 Measuring Primary Productivity 352
12.8 Phytoplankton Biomass 353
12.9 Controls on Productivity and Biomass 355
12.10 Food Webs and the Biological Pump 357
Food Webs 357
Biological Pump 359
Marine Bacteria and Nutrients 359
12.11 Global Patterns of Productivity 360
Summary 363
Key Terms 364
Study Problems 364
C H A P T E R 13
The Nekton: Swimmers
of the Sea 367
13.1 The Nekton Defined 368
13.2 Swimming Marine Invertebrates 369
13.3 Marine Reptiles 370
Sea Snakes 370
Sea Turtles 370
13.4 Marine Birds 372
13.5 Fish 374
Jawless Fish 374
Sharks, Skates, and Rays 374
Bony Fish 377
Deep-Sea Species of Bony Fish 378
13.6 Marine Mammals 380
Sea Otters 381
Walrus 381
Polar Bears 382
Seals and Sea Lions 384
Sea Cows 384
Whales 385
Whaling 387
Marine Mammal Protection Act 390
Communication 391
Diving in Whale Falls 392
Summary 394
Key Terms 394
Study Problems 395
C H A P T E R 14
The Benthos: Living
on the Sea Floor 397
14.1 The Benthic Environment 398
14.2 Seaweeds and Marine
Plants 401
General Characteristics
of Benthic Algae 401
Kinds of Seaweeds 403
Marine Plant Communities 404
14.3 Organisms of the Rocky Shore 404
Tide Pools 409
Submerged Rocky Bottoms 409
14.4 Organisms of the Soft Substrates 410
14.5 Organisms of the Deep-Sea Floor 413
14.6 Coral Reefs 415
Tropical Corals 415
Tropical Coral Reefs 416
Coral Bleaching 418
Predation and Disease 418
Human Activities 418
Diving in Undersea Ultraviolet Radiation 419
Deep-Water Corals 420
14.7 Deep-Ocean Chemosynthetic Communities 421
Hot Vents 421
Cold Seeps 422
14.8 Symbiosis 422
Summary 424
Key Terms 424
Study Problems 425
David Nunuk/All Canada Photos/
Getty Images
C H A P T E R 15
Environmental Issues 427
15.1 Human Impacts Through
Time 428
15.2 Marine Pollution 428
Solid Waste Dumping 429
Sewage Effluent 430
Toxicants 430
15.3 Plastic Trash 433
15.4 Eutrophication and Hypoxia 436
15.5 Oil Spills 438
Diving in Impacts from the Deepwater Horizon Spill 440
15.6 Marine Wetlands 443
15.7 Biological Invaders 444
15.8 Overfishing and Incidental Catch 446
Trends in Fishing Pressure 446
Indirect Impacts 447
Fish Farming 448
Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management 449
15.9 Afterthoughts 450
Summary 451
Key Terms 452
Study Problems 452
C H A P T E R 16
The Oceans and Climate
Disruption 455
16.1 Earth as a Whole: The Oceans and Climate 456
16.2 The Ocean and Climate Change 457
Earth’s Past Climate 458
Earth’s Present Climate 459
Earth’s Future Climate 461
16.3 The Oceans in a Warmer World 463
Ocean Acidificaon 463
Rising Sea Level 464
Winds, Waves, and Storms 465
Diving in Arctic Sea Ice Loss, Midlatitude Extreme Weather,
and Superstorm Sandy 466
Thermohaline Circulation 468
Biological Responses 468
16.4 Mitigation Strategies 469
Ocean Energy 469
Carbon Sequestration 470
Diving in The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 472
The International Response 474
Summary 475
Key Terms 475
Study Problems 476
Appendix A Scientific (or Exponential) Notation 477
Appendix B SI Units 479
Appendix C Equations and Quantitative Relationships 483
Glossary 487
Index 497