Principles of Biology, Fourth Edition
By Robert J. Brooker, Eric P. Widmaier, Linda E. Graham and Peter D. Stiling
Detailed Table of Contents:
CHAPTER 1
An Introduction to Biology 1
1.1 Principles of Biology and the Levels of Biological
Organization 2
1.2 Biological Evolution 7
Evolutionary Connections: The Frequency of the Tuskless
Elephant Appears to Be Increasing in Elephant Populations Due to
Poaching 9
1.3 Classification of Living Things 10
1.4 Biology as a Scientific Discipline 13
UNIT I Chemistry
Feature Investigation: Anfinsen Showed That the Primary
Structure of Ribonuclease Determines Its Three-Dimensional
Structure 52
Evolutionary Connections: Proteins Contain Functional
Domains 54
3.7 Nucleic Acids 55
UNIT II Cells
CHAPTER 2
The Chemical Basis of Life I:
Atoms, Molecules, and Water 21
2.1 Atoms 22
2.2 Chemical Bonds and Molecules 25
2.3 Chemical Reactions 29
2.4 Properties of Water 30
Quantitative Analysis: Concentrations of Molecules in Solution
Can Be Defined by Mass and Moles 31
2.5 pH and Buffers 34
CHAPTER 3
The Chemical Basis of Life II:
Organic Molecules 37
3.1 The Carbon Atom and Carbon-Containing
Molecules 38
3.2 Synthesis and Breakdown of Organic Molecules 40
3.3 Overview of the Four Major Classes of Organic
Molecules Found in Living Cells 40
3.4 Carbohydrates 41
3.5 Lipids 44
3.6 Proteins 47
CHAPTER 4
Evolutionary Origin of Cells
and Their General Features 59
4.1 Origin of Living Cells on Earth 60
4.2 Microscopy 66
4.3 Overview of Cell Structure and Function 69
4.4 The Cytosol 74
4.5 The Nucleus and Endomembrane System 79
4.6 Semiautonomous Organelles 85
Evolutionary Connections: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Are
Derived from Ancient Symbiotic Relationships 88
4.7 Protein Sorting to Organelles 89
4.8 Extracellular Matrix and Plant Cell Walls 89
4.9 Systems Biology of Cells: A Summary 94
CHAPTER 5
Membranes: The Interface Between Cells
and Their Environment 98
5.1 Membrane Structure 99
5.2 Fluidity of Membranes 100
5.3 Overview of Membrane Transport 103
5.4 Proteins That Carry Out
Membrane Transport 107
Feature Investigation: Agre Discovered That Osmosis Occurs
More Quickly in Cells with a Channel That Allows the Facilitated
Diffusion of Water 108
5.5 Intercellular Channels 113
5.6 Exocytosis and Endocytosis 114
5.7 Cell Junctions 117
CHAPTER 6
How Cells Utilize Energy 121
6.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions 122
6.2 Enzymes 124
Quantitative Analysis: Enzyme Function Is Influenced by
Substrate Concentration and by Inhibitors 126
6.3 Metabolic Pathways 129
6.4 Overview of Cellular Respiration 132
6.5 Glycolysis 134
6.6 Breakdown of Pyruvate 137
6.7 Citric Acid Cycle 138
6.8 Oxidative Phosphorylation 139
Feature Investigation: Yoshida and Kinosita Demonstrated
That the γ Subunit of ATP Synthase Spins 143
6.9 Connections Among Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat
Metabolism 145
6.10 Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation 146
CHAPTER 7
How Cells Capture Light Energy
via Photosynthesis 150
7.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 151
7.2 Reactions That Harness Light Energy 153
7.3 Molecular Features of Photosystems 159
7.4 Synthesizing Carbohydrates via the Calvin Cycle 161
Feature Investigation: The Calvin Cycle Was Determined
by Isotope-Labeling Methods 163
7.5 Variations in Photosynthesis 165
Evolutionary Connections: C4 and CAM Plants Have Evolved a
Mechanism to Minimize Photorespiration 165
CHAPTER 8
How Cells Communicate with Each Other
and with the Environment 169
8.1 General Features of Cell Communication 170
8.2 Receptor Activation 173
Quantitative Analysis: Receptors Have a Measurable Affinity for
Their Ligands 174
8.3 Cell Surface Receptors 175
8.4 Intracellular Receptors 177
8.5 Signal Transduction and Cellular Response via an
Enzyme-Linked Receptor 178
Evolutionary Connections: Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Are Found
in Choanoflagellates and Animals 180
8.6 Signal Transduction and Cellular Response via a
G-Protein-Coupled Receptor 181
8.7 Crosstalk Among Signal Transduction Pathways 184
UNIT III Genetics
CHAPTER 9
The Information of Life: DNA and RNA Structure, DNA
Replication, and Chromosome Structure 189
9.1 Properties and Identification of the
Genetic Material 190
Feature Investigation: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
Used Purification Methods to Reveal That DNA Is the
Genetic Material 191
9.2 Nucleic Acid Structure 193
9.3 Discovery of the Double-Helix Structure of DNA 197
9.4 Overview of DNA Replication 199
9.5 Molecular Mechanism of DNA Replication 202
9.6 Molecular Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes 206
CHAPTER 10
The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes I:
Transcription and Translation 211
10.1 Overview of Gene Expression 212
10.2 Transcription 213
10.3 RNA Modifications in Eukaryotes 215
10.4 Translation and the Genetic Code 218
Feature Investigation: Nirenberg and Leder Found That an RNA
Triplet Can Promote the Binding of a tRNA to a Ribosome 220
10.5 The Machinery of Translation 222
Evolutionary Connections: Comparisons of Small Subunit
rRNAs Among Different Species Provide a Basis for Establishing
Evolutionary Relationships 226
10.6 The Stages of Translation 227
CHAPTER 11
The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes II:
Non-coding RNAs 231
11.1 Overview of Non-coding RNAs 232
11.2 Role of Non-coding RNAs in Eukaryotic DNA
Replication 236
11.3 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Chromatin Structure and
Transcription 238
11.4 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Translation and mRNA
Degradation 239
Feature Investigation: Fire and Mello Showed That Double-
Stranded RNA Is More Potent Than Antisense RNA in Silencing
mRNA 239
11.5 Non-coding RNAs and Protein Sorting 243
11.6 Non-coding RNAs and Genome Defense 244
11.7 Roles of Non-coding RNAs in Human Disease and Plant
Health 246
CHAPTER 12
The Control of Genetic Information via Gene
Regulation 250
12.1 Overview of Gene Regulation 251
12.2 Regulation of Transcription in Bacteria 254
12.3 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes: Roles of
Transcription Factors 258
Evolutionary Connections: Transcription in Archaea Is a
Simplified Version of Eukaryotic Transcription 261
12.4 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes: Changes in
Chromatin Structure and DNA Methylation 262
12.5 Regulation of RNA Splicing and Translation in
Eukaryotes 266
Quantitative Analysis: Alternative Splicing Is More Prevalent in
Complex Eukaryotic Species 267
CHAPTER 13
Altering the Genetic Material: Mutation, DNA Repair,
and Cancer 271
13.1 Consequences of Mutations 272
13.2 Causes of Mutations 275
Feature Investigation: The Lederbergs Used Replica Plating to
Show That Mutations Are Random Events 275
Quantitative Analysis: Testing Methods Determine If an Agent Is
a Mutagen 278
13.3 DNA Repair 280
13.4 Cancer 282
CHAPTER 14
How Eukaryotic Cells Sort and Transmit Chromosomes:
Mitosis and Meiosis 289
14.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle 290
14.2 Mitotic Cell Division 294
Evolutionary Connections: Cell Division in Bacteria Involves
FtsZ, a Protein Related to Eukaryotic Tubulin 297
14.3 Meiosis 299
14.4 Sexual Reproduction 304
Quantitative Analysis: Meiosis Enhances Genetic Diversity 305
14.5 Variation in Chromosome Structure and Number 307
CHAPTER 15
Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to
Offspring I: Patterns That Follow Mendel’s Laws 313
15.1 Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance 314
Quantitative Analysis: A Punnett Square Is Used to Predict the
Outcome of Crosses 318
15.2 Chromosome Theory of Inheritance 320
15.3 Pedigree Analysis of Human Traits 323
15.4 Variations in Inheritance Patterns and Their Molecular
Basis 324
15.5 Sex Chromosomes and X-Linked Inheritance
Patterns 328
CHAPTER 16
Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to
Offspring II: Epigenetics, Linkage, and Extranuclear
Inheritance 331
16.1 Overview of Epigenetics 332
16.2 Epigenetics: Genomic Imprinting 333
16.3 Epigenetics: X-Chromosome Inactivation 335
16.4 Epigenetics: Effects of Environmental Agents 338
16.5 Extranuclear Inheritance: Organelle Genomes 341
Evolutionary Connections: Chloroplast and Mitochondrial
Genomes Are Relatively Small but Contain Genes That Code
Important Proteins 341
16.6 Linkage of Genes on the Same Chromosome 344
Feature Investigation: Bateson and Punnett’s Crosses of Sweet Peas
Showed That Genes Do Not Always Assort Independently 344
Quantitative Analysis: A Chi Square Test Can Be Used to
Distinguish Between Linkage and Independent Assortment 347
CHAPTER 17
The Simpler Genetic Systems of Viruses,
Bacteria, and Archaea 351
17.1 General Properties of Viruses 352
17.2 Viral Reproductive Cycles 353
17.3 Genetic Properties of Bacteria and Archaea 360
17.4 Gene Transfer Between Prokaryotic Cells 364
Evolutionary Connections: Horizontal Gene Transfer Is the
Transfer of Genes Between the Same or Different Species 367
CHAPTER 18
Genetic Technologies: How Biologists Study
Genes and Genomes 370
18.1 Gene Cloning 371
18.2 Genomics: Techniques for Studying and Altering
Genomes 377
18.3 Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes 384
18.4 Eukaryotic Genomes 386
Evolutionary Connections: Gene Duplications Provide Additional
Material for Genome Evolution, Sometimes Leading to the
Formation of Gene Families 387
18.5 Repetitive Sequences and Transposable Elements 389
UNIT IV Evolution
CHAPTER 19
Evolution of Life I: How Populations Change from
Generation to Generation 397
19.1 Overview of Evolution 398
19.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 401
19.3 Genes in Populations 409
Evolutionary Connections: Genes Are Usually Polymorphic 409
Quantitative Analysis: The Hardy-Weinberg Equation Relates
Allele and Genotype Frequencies in a Population 410
19.4 Natural Selection 412
Feature Investigation: The Grants Observed Natural Selection in
Galápagos Finches 416
19.5 Genetic Drift 419
19.6 Migration and Nonrandom Mating 423
CHAPTER 20
Evolution of Life II: The Emergence of
New Species 426
20.1 Identification of Species 427
20.2 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms 429
Feature Investigation: Podos Found That an Adaptation for Feeding
May Have Promoted Reproductive Isolation in Finches 432
20.3 Mechanisms of Speciation 434
20.4 Evo-Devo: Evolutionary Developmental Biology 439
Evolutionary Connections: The Hox Genes Have Been Important
in the Evolution of a Variety of Body Patterns 441
CHAPTER 21
How Biologists Classify Species and Study Their
Evolutionary Relationships 445
21.1 Taxonomy 446
Evolutionary Connections: Every Species Is Placed into a
Taxonomic Hierarchy 446
21.2 Phylogenetic Trees 449
21.3 Cladistics 453
Quantitative Analysis: The Principle of Parsimony Is Used to
Choose from Among Possible Cladograms 455
21.4 Molecular Clocks 456
21.5 Horizontal Gene Transfer 459
CHAPTER 22
The History of Life on Earth and Human
Evolution 463
22.1 The Fossil Record 464
Quantitative Analysis: Radioisotopes Provide a Way to Date
Fossils 465
22.2 History of Life on Earth 466
Evolutionary Connections: The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
Involved a Union Between Bacterial and Archaeal Cells 470
22.3 Human Evolution 476
Evolutionary Connections: Comparing the Genomes of Humans
and Chimpanzees 477
UNIT V Diversity
Mark Dadswell/Getty Images
CHAPTER 23
Diversity of Microbial Life: Archaea, Bacteria, Protists,
and Fungi 489
23.1 Introduction to Microorganisms 490
23.2 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Archaea 493
23.3 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Bacteria 494
CHAPTER 27
23.4 Diversity in Bacterial Cell Structure and
Metabolism 497
23.5 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Protists 501
Evolutionary Connections: Primary Plastids and Primary
Endosymbiosis 506
23.6 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Fungi 511
23.7 Technological Applications of Microorganisms 518
CHAPTER 24
Microbiomes: Microbial Systems on and Around Us 521
24.1 Microbiomes: Diversity of Microbes and Functions 522
24.2 Microbiomes of Physical Systems 525
24.3 Host-Associated Microbiomes 527
Feature Investigation: Grieneisen and Colleagues Discovered That
Detecting Microbiome Heritability Requires Large Samples Taken Over
Time 533
24.4 Engineering Animal and Plant Microbiomes 535
CHAPTER 25
Plant Evolution: How Plant Diversification Changed Planet
Earth 538
25.1 Ancestry and Diversity of Land Plants 539
25.2 An Evolutionary History of Land Plants 546
25.3 Diversity of Modern Gymnosperms 549
25.4 Diversity of Modern Angiosperms 552
Evolutionary Connections: Flower Organs Evolved from Leaflike
Structures 554
Feature Investigation: Hillig and Mahlberg Analyzed Secondary
Metabolites to Explore Species Diversification in the Genus
Cannabis 557
25.5 Human Influences on Angiosperm Diversification 560
CHAPTER 26
Invertebrates: The Vast Array of Animal Life
Without a Backbone 562
26.1 Characteristics of Animals 563
26.2 Animal Classification 564
Evolutionary Connections: The Protostomes Consist of Two Major
Clades—the Ecdysozoa and the Lophotrochozoa 567
26.3 Ctenophores: The Earliest Animals 570
26.4 Porifera: The Sponges 571
26.5 Cnidaria: Jellyfish and Other Radially Symmetric
Animals 572
26.6 Lophotrochozoa: The Flatworms, Rotifers, Bryozoans,
Brachiopods, Mollusks, and Annelids 574
Quantitative Analysis: How Many Flukes? 576
26.7 Ecdysozoa: The Nematodes and Arthropods 582
26.8 Deuterostomia: The Echinoderms and Chordates 590
CHAPTER 27
Vertebrates: Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and
Mammals 596
27.1 Vertebrates: Chordates with a Backbone 597
27.2 Cyclostomes: Jawless Fishes 597
27.3 Gnathostomes: Jawed Vertebrates 600
27.4 Tetrapods: Gnathostomes with Four Limbs 604
Feature Investigation: Davis and Colleagues Provided a Genetic-
Developmental Explanation for Limb Length in Tetrapods 605
27.5 Amniotes: Tetrapods with a Desiccation-Resistant
Egg 608
27.6 Mammals: Milk-Producing Amniotes 613
NIT VI Flowering Plants
CHAPTER 28
An Introduction to Flowering Plant Form and
Function 619
28.1 From Seed to Seed: The Life of a Flowering
Plant 620
28.2 Plant Growth and Development 624
28.3 The Shoot System: Stem and Leaf Adaptations 628
Feature Investigation: Lawren Sack and Colleagues Showed That
Palmate Venation Confers Tolerance of Leaf Vein Breakage 631
28.4 Root System Adaptations 636
CHAPTER 29
How Flowering Plants Sense and Interact with Their
Environments 640
29.1 Overview of Plant Behavioral Responses 641
29.2 Plant Hormones 644
Evolutionary Connections: Plant Gibberellin Responses Evolved
in a Stepwise Manner 646
29.3 Plant Responses to Light 648
29.4 Plant Responses to Gravity and Touch 651
29.5 Plant Responses to Attack 653
CHAPTER 30
How Flowering Plants Obtain and Transport Water, Mineral
Nutrients, and Organic Compounds 658
30.1 Plant Nutritional Requirements 659
30.2 The Roles of Soil in Plant Nutrition 662
30.3 Transport at the Cellular Level 666
Quantitative Analysis: The Water Potential Equation Can Be Used
to Predict Cellular Water Status 670
Evolutionary Connections: Plants Have Evolved Cellular
Adaptations to Drought Stress 670
30.4 Plant Transport at the Tissue Level 671
30.5 Long-Distance Transport in Plants 673
CHAPTER 31
How Flowering Plants Reproduce and Develop 682
31.1 An Overview of Flowering Plant Reproduction 683
31.2 Flower Production, Structure, and Development 687
31.3 Male and Female Gametophytes and Double
Fertilization 690
31.4 Embryo, Seed, Fruit, and Seedling Development 692
31.5 Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 696
Evolutionary Connections: Gene Expression Changes Explain the
Evolution of Plantlets in Kalanchoë 697
UNIT VII Animals
CHAPTER 32
General Features of Animal Bodies, and Homeostasis as a
Key Principle of Animal Biology 701
32.1 Organization of Animal Bodies 702
Evolutionary Connections: Organ Development and Function Are
Controlled by Hox Genes 707
32.2 Relationship Between Structure and Function 707
32.3 General Principles of Homeostasis 708
32.4 Homeostatic Regulation of Body Temperature 711
32.5 Homeostasis of Internal Fluids 716
Feature Investigation: Cade and Colleagues Discovered Why
Athletes’ Performances Wane on Hot Days 718
CHAPTER 33
Neuroscience I: The Structure, Function, and Evolution of
Nervous Systems 722
33.1 Cellular Components of Nervous Systems 723
33.2 Electrical Properties of Neurons and the Resting
Membrane Potential 726
Quantitative Analysis: An Ion’s Equilibrium Potential Depends on
Its Concentration Gradient 728
33.3 Generation and Transmission of Electrical Signals Along
Neurons 729
33.4 Communication at Synapses 734
33.5 Evolution and Development of Nervous Systems 737
Evolutionary Connections: Animals Evolved Increasingly
Complex Nervous Systems 737
33.6 Structure and Function of the Nervous Systems of
Vertebrates 740
Feature Investigation: Gaser and Schlaug Discovered That the
Sizes of Certain Brain Structures Differ Between
Musicians and Nonmusicians 745
33.7 Impact on Public Health 747
CHAPTER 34
Neuroscience II: How Sensory Systems Allow Animals to
Interact with the Environment 752
34.1 Introduction to Sensation 753
34.2 Mechanoreception 754
34.3 Thermoreception and Nociception 759
34.4 Photoreception 760
Evolutionary Connections: Color Vision Is an Ancient Adaptation
in Animals 763
34.5 Chemoreception 767
Feature Investigation: Buck and Axel Discovered a Family
of Olfactory Receptor Proteins That Bind Specific Odor
Molecules 768
34.6 Impact on Public Health 770
CHAPTER 35
How Muscles and Skeletons Are Adaptations for
Movement, Support, and Protection 774
35.1 Types of Animal Skeletons 775
35.2 Skeletal Muscle Structure and the Mechanism of
Force Generation 777
Evolutionary Connections: Myosins Are an Ancient and Diverse
Family of Proteins 780
35.3 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Their
Functions 784
35.4 Impact on Public Health 786
CHAPTER 36
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems: Transporting Solutes
and Exchanging Gases 789
36.1 Types of Circulatory Systems 790
Evolutionary Connections: A Four-Chambered Heart Evolved
from Simple Contractile Tubes 792
36.2 The Composition of Blood 793
36.3 The Four-Chambered Vertebrate Heart and Its
Function 795
36.4 Blood Vessels 799
36.5 Relationship Among Blood Pressure, Blood Flow, and
Resistance 802
Quantitative Analysis: Cardiac Output and Resistance Determine
Blood Pressure 803
36.6 Physical Properties of Gases 805
36.7 Types of Respiratory Systems 806
36.8 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Respiratory
System 809
36.9 Mechanisms of Gas Transport in Blood 812
Quantitative Analysis: The Ability of Hemoglobin to Bind Oxygen
Is Affected by Factors Such as Temperature, CO2, and pH 813
36.10 Control of Ventilation 815
36.11 Impact on Public Health 816
CHAPTER 37
Digestive and Excretory Systems:
Maintaining Nutrient, Water, and Energy Balance
and Removing Waste 822
37.1 Overview of Animal Nutrition 823
37.2 General Principles of Digestion and Absorption of
Nutrients 826
37.3 Vertebrate Digestive Systems 827
Evolutionary Connections: Evolution and Genetics Explain
Lactose Intolerance 833
37.4 Nutrient Use and Storage 837
37.5 Regulation of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States in
Vertebrates 839
37.6 Excretory Systems in Different Animal Groups 842
37.7 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Kidneys 845
37.8 Impact on Public Health 851
Feature Investigation: Marshall, Warren, and Coworkers
Demonstrated a Link Between Bacterial Infection and Ulcers 852
CHAPTER 38
How Endocrine Systems Influence the Activities of
All Other Organ Systems 857
38.1 Types of Hormones and Their Mechanisms of Action 858
38.2 Links Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems 861
38.3 Hormonal Control of Metabolism and Energy Balance 863
Feature Investigation: Banting, Best, Collip, and MacLeod Were
the First to Isolate Active Insulin 867
38.4 Hormonal Control of Mineral Balance 870
Evolutionary Connections: Hormones and Receptors Evolved as
Tightly Integrated Molecular Systems 872
38.5 Hormonal Control of Growth and Development 874
38.6 Hormonal Control of Reproduction 876
38.7 Impact on Public Health 876
CHAPTER 39
The Production of Offspring: Reproduction and
Development 879
39.1 Overview of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction 880
Feature Investigation: Paland and Lynch Provided Evidence That
Sexual Reproduction May Promote the Elimination of Harmful
Mutations in Populations 881
39.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization 883
39.3 Human Reproductive Structure and Function 887
39.4 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals 892
39.5 General Events of Embryonic Development 895
39.6 Impact on Public Health 901
CHAPTER 40
Immune Systems: How Animals Defend Against Pathogens
and Other Dangers 905
40.1 Types of Pathogens 906
40.2 Innate Immunity 907
Evolutionary Connections: Innate Immune Responses
Require Proteins That Recognize Features Common to Many
Pathogens 909
Feature Investigation: Lemaitre and Colleagues Identified an
Immune Function for Toll Protein in Drosophila 910
40.3 Adaptive Immunity in Vertebrates 912
40.4 Impact on Public Health 923
CHAPTER 41
An Example of a System-Wide Response to a Challenge
to Homeostasis 927
41.1 Effects of Hemorrhage on Blood Pressure and Organ
Function 928
41.2 The Rapid Phase of the Homeostatic Response to
Hemorrhage 930
Evolutionary Connections: Baroreceptors May Have Evolved to
Minimize Increases in Blood Pressure in Vertebrates 932
41.3 The Secondary Phase of the Homeostatic Response to
Hemorrhage 934
41.4 Impact on Public Health 938
UNIT VIII Ecology
Kirill KukhmarITAR-TASS News Agency/Alamy Stock Photo
CHAPTER 42
Behavioral Ecology: The Struggle to Find Food and Mates
and to Pass on Genes 943
42.1 The Influence of Genetics
and Learning on Behavior 944
Feature Investigation: Tinbergen’s Experiments Showed That
Digger Wasps Learn the Positions of Landmarks to Find Their
Nests 945
42.2 Communication 948
42.3 Living in Groups and Game Theory 950
Quantitative Analysis: Game Theory Establishes Whether
Individuals Fight or Flee 952
42.4 Altruism 953
42.5 Mating Systems 956
CHAPTER 43
Population Growth and Species Interactions 960
43.1 Measuring Population Size and Density 961
Quantitative Analysis: Mark-Recapture Can Be Used to Estimate
Population Size 962
43.2 Demography 963
43.3 How Populations Grow 966
43.4 Species Interactions 968
Evolutionary Connections: Organisms Have Evolved Many
Defenses Against Natural Enemies 971
43.5 The Spread of Pathogens 975
CHAPTER 44
Communities and Ecosystems: Ecological Organization
at Large Scales 980
44.1 Patterns of Species Richness and Species Diversity 981
Quantitative Analysis: Calculating Species Diversity 983
44.2 Species Richness and Community Stability 985
44.3 Succession: Community Change 986
44.4 Island Biogeography 989
Feature Investigation: Simberloff and Wilson’s Experiments
Tested the Predictions of the Equilibrium Model of Island
Biogeography 991
44.5 Food Webs and Energy Flow 993
44.6 Biomass Production in Ecosystems 997
CHAPTER 45
Biomes: How Climate Affects the Distribution of
Species on Earth 1003
45.1 Climate and Its Relationship to Biological
Communities 1004
45.2 Major Biomes 1010
Evolutionary Connections: Plate Tectonics and Biogeography
Help to Explain Species Distribution 1014
CHAPTER 46
The Age of Humans 1017
46.1 Human Population Growth 1018
46.2 Global Warming and Climate Change 1021
46.3 Pollution and Human Influences on Biogeochemical
Cycles 1024
Feature Investigation: Stiling and Drake’s Experiments with
Elevated CO2 Showed an Increase in Plant Growth but a Decrease in
Herbivory 1025
46.4 Pollution and Biomagnification 1030
46.5 Habitat Destruction 1032
46.6 Overexploitation 1035
46.7 Invasive Species 1038
CHAPTER 47
Biodiversity and Conservation Biology 1043
47.1 Genetic, Species, and Ecosystem Diversity 1044
47.2 Value of Biodiversity to Human Welfare 1045
47.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1047
47.4 Conservation Strategies 1049
Appendix A Periodic Table of the Elements A-1
Appendix B Answers to In-Chapter and End-of-Chapter Questions B-1
Index I-1