An Introduction to Psychological Science, Second Canadian Edition
By Mark Krause, Daniel Corts, Stephen Smith and Dan Dolderman
Contents:
About the Authors xvii
About the Canadian Authors xvii
From the Authors xviii
Content and Features xxi
For Instructors xxvi
Acknowledgments xxviii
1 Introducing Psychological Science 1
Module 1.1 The Science of Psychology 2
The Scientific Method 3
Hypotheses: Making Predictions 3
Theories: Explaining Phenomena 4
The Biopsychosocial Model 5
Building Scientific Literacy 6
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Planning When to Study 7
Critical Thinking, Curiosity, and a Dose of Healthy Skepticism 8
Myths in Mind Abducted by Aliens! 9
Summary 10
Module 1.2 How Psychology Became a Science 11
Psychology’s Philosophical and Scientific Origins 12
Influences from the Ancients: Philosophical Insights
into Behaviour 12
Influences from Physics: Experimenting with the Mind 13
Influences from Evolutionary Theory: The Adaptive
Functions of Behaviour 13
Influences from Medicine: Diagnoses and Treatments 15
The Influence of Social Sciences: Measuring and Comparing Humans 16
The Beginnings of Contemporary Psychology 18
Structuralism and Functionalism: The Beginnings of
Psychology 18
The Rise of Behaviourism 19
Radical Behaviourism 20
Humanistic Psychology Emerges 21
The Brain and Behaviour 21
The Cognitive Revolution 21
Social and Cultural Influences 23
Emerging Themes in Psychology 24
Psychology of Women 24
Comparing Cultures 25
The Neuroimaging Explosion 25
The Search for the Positive 26
Psychology in the Real World 26
Summary 28
2 Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research 29
Module 2.1 Principles of Scientific Research 30
Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research 31
Scientific Measurement: Objectivity 31
Scientific Measurement: Reliability, and Validity 32
Generalizability of Results 33
Sources of Bias in Psychological Research 34
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Demand
Characteristics and Participant Behaviour 35
Techniques That Reduce Bias 36
Sharing the Results 37
Psych@ The Hospital: The Placebo Effect 37
Replication 38
Five Characteristics of Poor Research 39
Summary 41
Module 2.2 Scientific Research Designs 42
Descriptive Research 43
Case Studies 43
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Case Studies as a Form of Scientific Research 44
Naturalistic Observation 45
Surveys and Questionnaires 46
Correlational Research 47
Myths in Mind Beware of Illusory Correlations 48
Experimental Research 49
The Experimental Method 49
The Quasi-Experimental Method 50
Converging Operations 50
Summary 51
Module 2.3 Ethics in Psychological Research 53
Promoting the Welfare of Research Participants 54
Weighing the Risks and Benefits of Research 54
Obtaining Informed Consent 55
The Right to Anonymity and Confidentiality 56
The Welfare of Animals in Research 56
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Animal Models of Disease 57
REBs for Animal-Based Research 59
Ethical Collection, Storage, and Reporting of Data 59
Summary 61
Module 2.4 A Statistical Primer 62
Descriptive Statistics 63
Frequency 63
Central Tendency 63
Variability 65
Hypothesis Testing: Evaluating the Outcome of a Study 66
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Statistical Significance 68
Summary 70
3 Biological Psychology 71
Module 3.1 Genetic and Evolutionary Perspectives on Behaviour 72
Heredity and Behaviour 73
The Genetic Code 73
Behavioural Genomics: The Molecular Approach 75
Behavioural Genetics: Twin and Adoption Studies 75
Myths in Mind Single Genes and Behaviour 76
Gene Expression and Behaviour 78
Evolutionary Insights into Human Behaviour 79
Evolutionary Psychology 80
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Hunters and Gatherers:
Men, Women, and Spatial Memory 81
Sexual Selection and Evolution 83
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Sexual Selection and
the Colour Red 84
Summary 86
Module 3.2 How the Nervous System Works: Cells and
Neurotransmitters 88
Neural Communication 89
The Neuron 89
Myths in Mind We Are Born with All the Brain Cells We Will
Ever Have 90
Glial Cells 91
The Neuron’s Electrical System: Resting and Action
Potentials 91
The Chemical Messengers: Neurotransmitters and
Hormones 93
Types of Neurotransmitters 94
Drug Effects on Neurotransmission 95
Hormones and the Endocrine System 96
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Testosterone and Aggression 97
Neurons in Context 99
Summary 100
Module 3.3 Structure and Organization of the Nervous System 101
Divisions of the Nervous System 102
The Central Nervous System 102
The Peripheral Nervous System 102
The Brain and Its Structures 104
The Hindbrain: Sustaining the Body 104
The Midbrain: Sensation and Action 105
The Forebrain: Emotion, Memory, and Thought 106
The Cerebral Cortex 108
The Four Lobes 108
Left Brain, Right Brain: Hemispheric Specialization 111
Psych@ The Gym 111
The Changing Brain: Neuroplasticity 112
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Neuroplasticity and Recovery from Brain Injury 113
Summary 115
Module 3.4 Windows to the Brain: Measuring and Observing
Brain Activity 116
Insights from Brain Damage 117
Lesioning and Brain Stimulation 117
Structural and Functional Neuroimaging 119
Structural Neuroimaging 119
Functional Neuroimaging 120
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Functional MRI and
Behaviour 122
Summary 124
4 Sensation and Perception 125
Module 4.1 Sensation and Perception at a Glance 126
Sensing the World Around Us 127
Stimulus Thresholds 129
Signal Detection 130
Priming and Subliminal Perception 131
Myths in Mind Setting the Record Straight on Subliminal Messaging 131
Perceiving the World Around Us 132
Gestalt Principles of Perception 132
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Backward Messages in Music 134
Attention and Perception 136
Summary 137
Module 4.2 The Visual System 139
The Human Eye 140
How the Eye Gathers Light 140
The Structure of the Eye 141
The Retina: From Light to Nerve Impulse 142
The Retina and the Perception of Colours 144
Common Visual Disorders 145
4 Sensation and Perception 125
Module 4.1 Sensation and Perception at a Glance 126
Sensing the World Around Us 127
Stimulus Thresholds 129
Signal Detection 130
Priming and Subliminal Perception 131
Myths in Mind Setting the Record Straight on Subliminal Messaging 131
Perceiving the World Around Us 132
Gestalt Principles of Perception 132
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Backward Messages in
Music 134
Attention and Perception 136
Summary 137
Module 4.2 The Visual System 139
The Human Eye 140
How the Eye Gathers Light 140
The Structure of the Eye 141
The Retina: From Light to Nerve Impulse 142
The Retina and the Perception of Colours 144
Common Visual Disorders 145
Visual Perception and the Brain 146
The Ventral Stream 148
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Are Faces Special? 148
The Dorsal Stream 151
Depth Perception 152
Psych@ The Artist’s Studio 153
Summary 155
Module 4.3 The Auditory and Vestibular Systems 156
Sound and the Structures of the Ear 157
Sound 157
The Human Ear 157
The Perception of Sound 160
Sound Localization: Finding the Source 160
Theories of Pitch Perception 160
Auditory Perception and the Brain 161
The Perception of Music 162
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Perception of Musical Beats 162
The Vestibular System 164
Sensation and the Vestibular System 164
The Vestibular System and the Brain 165
Summary 165
Module 4.4 Touch and the Chemical Senses 167
The Sense of Touch 168
Feeling Pain 169
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Empathy and Pain 171
Phantom Limb Pain 172
The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell 173
The Gustatory System: Taste 173
The Olfactory System: Smell 175
Multimodal Integration 176
What Is Multimodal Integration? 176
Synesthesia 177
Summary 178
5 Consciousness 180
Module 5.1 Biological Rhythms of Consciousness:
Wakefulness and Sleep 181
What Is Sleep? 182
Biological Rhythms 182
The Stages of Sleep 184
Why Do We Need Sleep? 186
Theories of Sleep 186
Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Displacement 187
Theories of Dreaming 190
The Psychoanalytic Approach 190
The Activation– Synthesis Hypothesis 190
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Dreams, REM Sleep, and Learning 191
Disorders and Problems with Sleep 193
Insomnia 193
Nightmares and Night Terrors 194
Movement Disturbances 194
Sleep Apnea 195
Narcolepsy 196
Overcoming Sleep Problems 196
Summary 197
Module 5.2 Altered States of Consciousness: Hypnosis, Mind-
Wandering, and Disorders of Consciousness 199
Hypnosis 200
Theories of Hypnosis 200
Applications of Hypnosis 201
Myths in Mind Recovering Lost Memories through
Hypnosis 202
Mind-Wandering 203
What Is Mind-Wandering? 203
Mind-Wandering and the Brain 203
The Benefits of Mind-Wandering 204
Disorders of Consciousness 205
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Assessing
Consciousness in the Vegetative State 207
Summary 210
Module 5.3 Drugs and Conscious Experience 211
Physical and Psychological Effects of Drugs 212
Short-Term Effects 212
Long-Term Effects 213
Commonly Abused “Recreational” Drugs 215
Stimulants 215
Hallucinogens 217
Marijuana 218
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Recreational and
Spiritual Uses of Salvia Divinorum 219
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Marijuana, Memory,
and Cognition 219
Opiates 221
Legal Drugs and Their Effects on Consciousness 222
Sedatives 222
Prescription Drug Abuse 222
Alcohol 224
Why Are Some Drugs Legal and Others Illegal? 224
Psych@ University Parties 224
Summary 226
6 Learning 227
Module 6.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association 228
Pavlov’s Dogs: Classical Conditioning of Salivation 229
Evolutionary Function of the CR 231
Classical Conditioning and the Brain 231
Processes of Classical Conditioning 233
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery 233
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 234
Applications of Classical Conditioning 235
Conditioned Emotional Responses 235
Evolutionary Role for Fear Conditioning 236
Conditioned Taste Aversions 237
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Conditioning and
Negative Political Advertising 239
Drug Tolerance and Conditioning 241
Summary 242
Module 6.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning through
Consequences 244
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 245
Reinforcement and Punishment 245
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
247
Shaping 248
Applying Operant Conditioning 248
Processes of Operant Conditioning 249
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 249
Discrimination and Generalization 250
Delayed Reinforcement and Extinction 251
Reward Devaluation 251
Reinforcement Schedules and Operant Conditioning 252
Schedules of Reinforcement 252
Psych@ Never Use Multiline Slot Machines 254
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Reinforcement and
Superstition 255
Applying Punishment 256
Are Classical and Operant Learning Distinct Events?
257
Summary 258
Module 6.3 Cognitive and Observational Learning 260
Cognitive Perspectives on Learning 261
Latent Learning 261
S-O-R Theory of Learning 262
Observational Learning 262
Processes Supporting Observational Learning 263
Myths in Mind Is Teaching Uniquely Human? 264
Imitation and Mirror Neurons 265
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Linking Media
Exposure to Behaviour 265
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Violence, Video
Games, and Culture 268
Summary 269
7 Memory 270
Module 7.1 Memory Systems 271
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model 272
Sensory Memory 273
Short-Term Memory and the Magical Number 7 274
Long-Term Memory 275
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Distinguishing Short-
Term from Long-Term Memory Stores 276
The Working Memory Model: An Active STM System 279
The Phonological Loop 280
The Visuospatial Sketchpad 280
The Episodic Buffer 281
The Central Executive 281
Working Memory: Putting the Pieces Together 281
Long-Term Memory Systems: Declarative and
Nondeclarative Memories 282
Declarative Memory 282
Nondeclarative Memory 283
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory 283
Memory at the Cellular Level 283
Memory, the Brain, and Amnesia 284
Stored Memories and the Brain 285
Summary 287
Module 7.2 Encoding and Retrieving Memories 288
Encoding and Retrieval 289
Rehearsal: The Basics of Encoding 289
Levels of Processing 290
Retrieval 290
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Context-Dependent
Memory 291
State-Dependent Memory 294
Mood-Dependent Memory 294
Emotional Memories 295
Flashbulb Memories 296
Myths in Mind The Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories 297
Forgetting and Remembering 298
The Forgetting Curve: How Soon We Forget … 298
Mnemonics: Improving Your Memory Skills 298
Summary 301
Module 7.3 Constructing and Reconstructing Memories 302
How Memories Are Organized and Constructed 303
The Schema: An Active Organization Process 303
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: How Schemas
Influence Memory 303
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Your Earliest
Memories 305
Memory Reconstruction 306
The Perils of Eyewitness Testimony 306
Psych@ Court: Is Eyewitness Testimony Reliable? 308
Imagination and False Memories 308
Creating False Memories in the Laboratory 309
The Danger of False Remembering 310
Summary 312
8 Thought and Language 313
Module 8.1 The Organization of Knowledge 314
Concepts and Categories 315
Classical Categories: Definitions and Rules 315
Prototypes: Categorization by Comparison 315
Networks and Hierarchies 316
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Priming and Semantic
Networks 318
Memory, Culture, and Categories 319
Categorization and Experience 319
Categories, Memory, and the Brain 320
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Culture and
Categorical Thinking 321
Myths in Mind How Many Words for Snow? 322
Categories and Culture 322
Summary 323
Module 8.2 Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision Making
324
Defining and Solving Problems 325
Problem-Solving Strategies and Techniques 325
Cognitive Obstacles 326
Psych@ Problem Solving and Humour 327
Judgment and Decision Making 328
Conjunction Fallacies and Representativeness 328
The Availability Heuristic 329
Anchoring and Framing Effects 330
Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias 331
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Maximizing and
Satisficing in Complex Decisions 332
Summary 335
Module 8.3 Language and Communication 336
What Is Language? 337
Early Studies of Language 337
Properties of Language 338
Phonemes and Morphemes: The Basic Ingredients of
Language 339
Syntax: The Language Recipe 339
Pragmatics: The Finishing Touches 340
The Development of Language 341
Infants, Sound Perception, and Language Acquisition
341
Producing Spoken Language 342
Sensitive Periods for Language 342
The Bilingual Brain 343
Genes, Evolution, and Language 344
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Genes and Language
344
Can Animals Use Language? 346
Summary 348
9 Intelligence Testing 349
Module 9.1 Measuring Intelligence 350
Different Approaches to Intelligence Testing 351
Intelligence and Perception: Galton’s Anthropometric
Approach 351
Intelligence and Thinking: The Stanford– Binet Test 352
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 353
Raven’s Progressive Matrices 355
The Checkered Past of Intelligence Testing 356
IQ Testing and the Eugenics Movement 356
The Race and IQ Controversy 357
Problems with the Racial Superiority Interpretation 358
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Beliefs about
Intelligence 358
Summary 361
Module 9.2 Understanding Intelligence 362
Intelligence as a Single, General Ability 363
Spearman’s General Intelligence 363
Does G Tell Us the Whole Story? 364
Intelligence as Multiple, Specific Abilities 365
The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence 365
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Testing for Fluid and
Crystallized Intelligence 366
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 368
Myths in Mind Learning Styles 369
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 369
Psych@ The NFL Draft 370
The Battle of the Sexes 371
Do Males and Females have Unique Cognitive Skills?
372
Summary 373
Module 9.3 Biological, Environmental, and Behavioural
Influences on Intelligence 374
Biological Influences on Intelligence 375
The Genetics of Intelligence: Twin and Adoption
Studies 375
The Heritability of Intelligence 375
Behavioural Genomics 376
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Brain Size and
Intelligence 377
Environmental Influences on Intelligence 379
Birth Order 379
Socioeconomic Status 380
Nutrition 380
Stress 381
Education 381
The Flynn Effect: Is Everyone Getting Smarter? 381
Behavioural Influences on Intelligence 382
Brain Training Programs 383
Nootropic Drugs 383
Summary 384
10 Lifespan Development 385
Module 10.1 Physical Development from Conception through
Infancy 386
Methods for Measuring Developmental Trends 387
Patterns of Development: Stages and Continuity 387
Zygotes to Infants: From One Cell to Billions 388
Fertilization and Gestation 388
Fetal Brain Development 388
Nutrition, Teratogens, and Fetal Development 390
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Long-Term Effects
of Premature Birth 392
Myths in Mind Vaccinations and Autism 394
Sensory and Motor Development in Infancy 394
Motor Development in the First Year 396
Summary 399
Module 10.2 Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive and Emotional
Development 400
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory 401
The Sensorimotor Stage: Living in the Material World
401
The Preoperational Stage: Quantity and Numbers 402
The Concrete Operational Stage: Using Logical Thought
403
The Formal Operational Stage: Abstract and
Hypothetical Thought 403
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Evaluating Piaget 404
Complementary Approaches to Piaget 405
Social Development, Attachment, and Self-Awareness 406
What Is Attachment? 407
Types of Attachment 407
Development of Attachment 409
Self Awareness 409
Psychosocial Development 412
Development across the Lifespan 412
Parenting and Prosocial Behaviour 413
Parenting and Attachment 414
Summary 415
Module 10.3 Adolescence 417
Physical Changes in Adolescence 418
Emotional Challenges in Adolescence 419
Emotional Regulation during Adolescence 420
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Adolescent Risk and
Decision Making 420
Cognitive Development: Moral Reasoning vs. Emotions 422
Kohlberg’s Moral Development: Learning Right from
Wrong 422
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Emotion and Disgust
424
Social Development: Identity and Relationships 425
Who Am I? Identity Formation during Adolescence 425
Peer Groups 425
Romantic Relationships 426
Summary 427
Module 10.4 Adulthood and Aging 428
From Adolescence through Middle Age 429
Emerging Adults 429
Early and Middle Adulthood 429
Love and Marriage 431
Parenting 432
Late Adulthood 433
Happiness and Relationships 433
The Eventual Decline of Aging 434
Psych@ The Driver’s Seat 435
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Aging and Cognitive
Change 436
Summary 438
11 Motivation and Emotion 439
Module 11.1 Hunger and Eating 440
Physiological Aspects of Hunger 442
Food and Reward 443
Psychological Aspects of Hunger 445
Attention and Eating 445
Eating and Semantic Networks 446
Eating and the Social Context 446
Disorders of Eating 448
Anorexia and Bulimia 448
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Effect of Media
Depictions of Beauty on Body Image 450
Summary 451
Module 11.2 Sex 452
Human Sexual Behaviour: Psychological Influences 453
Psychological Measures of Sexual Motivation 453
Human Sexual Behaviour: Physiological Influences 455
Physiological Measures of Sex 455
Sexual Orientation: Biology and Environment 456
Transgender and Transsexual Individuals 458
Psych@ Sex Ed 459
Human Sexual Behaviour: Cultural Influences 460
Sex and Technology 461
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Does Sex Sell? 462
Summary 464
Module 11.3 Social and Achievement Motivation 465
Belonging and Love Needs 466
Belonging Is a Need, Not a Want 467
Love 467
Belonging, Self-Esteem, and Our Worldview 468
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Terror Management
Theory and the Need to Belong 468
Achievement Motivation 470
Self-Determination Theory 471
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation 472
A Continuum of Motivation 472
Cultural Differences in Motivation 473
Summary 475
Module 11.4 Emotion 476
Physiology of Emotion 477
The Initial Response 477
The Autonomic Response: Fight or Flight? 478
The Emotional Response: Movement 479
Emotional Regulation 479
Experiencing Emotions 479
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Two-Factor Theory
of Emotion 481
Expressing Emotions 484
Emotional Faces and Bodies 484
Culture, Emotion, and Display Rules 486
Culture, Context, and Emotion 487
Summary 489
12 Personality 490
Module 12.1 Contemporary Approaches to Personality 491
The Trait Perspective 492
Early Trait Research 492
The Five Factor Model 493
Openness 494
Conscientiousness 495
Extraversion 495
Agreeableness 495
Neuroticism 495
Beyond the Big Five: The Personality of Evil? 496
Honesty–Humility 496
The Dark Triad 496
Right-Wing Authoritarianism 497
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Right-Wing
Authoritarianism at the Group Level 497
Personality Traits over the Lifespan 499
Temperaments 499
Is Personality Stable over Time? 499
Personality Traits and States 500
Behaviourist and Social-Cognitive Perspectives 501
The Behaviourist Perspective 501
The Social-Cognitive Perspective 502
Summary 503
Module 12.2 Cultural and Biological Approaches to
Personality 505
Culture and Personality 506
Universals and Differences across Cultures: The Big
Five 506
Personality Structures in Different Cultures 506
Comparing Personality Traits between Nations 507
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES How Culture Shapes
Our Development: Cultural Differences in the Self 507
How Genes Affect Personality 508
Twin Studies 509
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: From Molecules to
Personality 510
The Role of Evolution in Personality 511
Animal Behaviour: The Evolutionary Roots of
Personality 511
Why There Are So Many Different Personalities: The
Evolutionary Explanation 512
Myths in Mind Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus
513
The Brain and Personality 514
Extraversion and Arousal 514
Contemporary Research: Images of Personality in the
Brain 515
Extraversion 515
Neuroticism 515
Agreeableness 515
Conscientiousness 515
Openness to Experience 515
Summary 516
Module 12.3 Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches to
Personality 518
The Psychodynamic Perspective 519
Assumptions of Psychodynamic Theories 519
Unconscious Processes and Psychodynamics 520
The Structure of Personality 520
Defence Mechanisms 521
Personality Development: The Psychosexual Stages
522
The Oral Stage (0–18 Months) 523
The Anal Stage (18 Months–3 Years) 523
The Phallic Stage (3–6 Years) 523
The Latency Stage (6–13 years) 524
The Genital Stage 524
Exploring the Unconscious with Projective Tests 525
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Perceiving Others as a
Projective Test 526
Alternatives to the Psychodynamic Approach 527
Analytical Psychology 527
The Power of Social Factors 528
Humanistic Perspectives 528
Summary 529
13 Social Psychology 531
Module 13.1 The Power of the Situation: Social Influences on
Behaviour 532
The Person and the Situation 533
Mimicry and Social Norms 534
Group Dynamics: Social Loafing and Social Facilitation
535
Groupthink 536
The Asch Experiments: Conformity 537
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Examining Why People
Conform: Seeing Is Believing 538
The Bystander Effect: Situational Influences on Helping
Behaviour 541
Social Roles and Obedience 544
The Stanford Prison Study 544
Obedience to Authority: The Milgram Experiment 546
Summary 549
Module 13.2 Social Cognition 551
Person Perception 552
Thin Slices of Behaviour 553
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and Other Consequences of
First Impressions 553
The Self in the Social World 554
Projecting the Self onto Others: False Consensus and
Naive Realism 554
Self-Serving Biases and Attributions 555
Ingroups and Outgroups 556
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 557
Myths in Mind Are Only Negative Aspects of Stereotypes
Problematic? 558
Prejudice in a Politically Correct World 558
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Explicit versus Implicit
Measures of Prejudice 559
Psych@ The Law Enforcement Academy 561
Improving Intergroup Relations 562
Summary 563
Module 13.3 Attitudes, Behaviour, and Effective
Communication 564
Changing People’s Behaviour 565
Persuasion: Changing Attitudes through
Communication 565
Using the Central Route Effectively 566
Make It Personal 567
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Identifiable Victim
Effect 568
Value Appeals 570
Preaching or Flip-Flopping? One-Sided vs. Two-Sided
Messages 570
Emotions in the Central Route 570
Using the Peripheral Route Effectively 572
Authority 572
Liking 572
Social Validation 572
Reciprocity 572
Consistency 573
The Attitude–Behaviour Feedback Loop 574
Cognitive Dissonance 574
Attitudes and Actions 575
Summary 576
14 Health, Stress, and Coping 578
Module 14.1 Behaviour and Health 579
Smoking 580
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Media Exposure and
Smoking 580
Efforts to Prevent Smoking 581
Obesity 582
Defining Healthy Weights and Obesity 583
Genetics and Body Weight 584
The Sedentary Lifestyle 584
Social Factors 585
Psychology and Weight Loss 585
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Ethnicity, Economics, and Obesity 585
Psychosocial Influences on Health 586
Poverty and Discrimination 586
Family and Social Environment 587
Social Contagion 587
Summary 588
Module 14.2 Stress and Illness 590
What Causes Stress? 591
Stress and Performance 592
Physiology of Stress 593
The Stress Pathways 594
Oxytocin: To Tend and Befriend 594
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Hormones,
Relationships, and Health 596
Stress, Immunity, and Illness 597
Stress, Personality, and Heart Disease 598
Myths in Mind Stress and Ulcers 599
Stress, Food, and Drugs 599
Stress, the Brain, and Disease 599
Summary 601
Module 14.3 Coping and Well-Being 602
Coping 603
Positive Coping Strategies 603
Optimism and Pessimism 603
Resilience 604
Biofeedback 605
Meditation and Relaxation 605
Psych@ Church 607
Exercise 608
Perceived Control 609
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Compensatory Control
and Health 610
Summary 612
15 Psychological Disorders 614
Module 15.1 Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders 615
Defining Abnormal Behaviour 616
What Is “Normal” Behaviour? 617
Psychology’s Puzzle: How to Diagnose Psychological
Disorders 617
Critiquing the DSM 618
The Power of a Diagnosis 619
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Labelling and Mental
Disorders 619
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Symptoms,
Treatments, and Culture 621
Applications of Psychological Diagnoses 622
The Mental Disorder Defence (AKA the Insanity
Defence) 622
Summary 623
Module 15.2 Personality and Dissociative Disorders 624
Defining and Classifying Personality Disorders 625
Borderline Personality 625
Narcissistic Personality 626
Histrionic Personality 626
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Antisocial Personality Disorder 626
The Biopsychosocial Approach to Personality Disorders 629
Psychological Factors 629
Sociocultural Factors 629
Biological Factors 629
Dissociative Identity Disorder 630
Types of Dissociative Disorders 630
Is Dissociative Identity Disorder “Real?” 630
Summary 631
Module 15.3 Anxiety, Obsessive–Compulsive, and Depressive Disorders 633
Anxiety Disorders 634
Varieties of Anxiety Disorders 634
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Specific Phobias 635
The Vicious Cycle of Anxiety Disorders 637
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 637
Mood Disorders 639
Types of Mood Disorders 639
Cognitive Aspects of Depression 639
Biological Aspects of Depression 640
Sociocultural and Environmental Influences on Mood Disorders 641
Suicide 641
Psych@ The Suicide Helpline 642
Summary 643
Module 15.4 Schizophrenia 644
Symptoms and Types of Schizophrenia 645
Stages of Schizophrenia 645
Symptoms of Schizophrenia 645
Common Sub-Types of Schizophrenia 646
Myths in Mind Schizophrenia Is Not a Sign of Violence or of Being a “Mad Genius” 647
Explaining Schizophrenia 648
Genetics 648
Schizophrenia and the Nervous System 648
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The
Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis 649
Environmental and Social Influences on Schizophrenia 650
Culture and Schizophrenia 651
Summary 652
16 Therapies 653
Module 16.1 Treating Psychological Disorders 654
Barriers to Psychological Treatment 655
Stigma about Mental Illness 655
Gender Roles 656
Logistical Barriers: Expense and Availability 656
Involuntary Treatment 656
Mental Health Providers and Settings 657
Mental Health Providers 657
Inpatient Treatment and Deinstitutionalization 658
The Importance of Community Psychology 659
Psych@ The University Mental Health Counselling Centre 659
Evaluating Treatments 660
Empirically Supported Treatments 660
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Can Self-Help
Treatments Be Effective? 661
Summary 663
Module 16.2 Psychological Therapies 664
Insight Therapies 665
Psychoanalysis: Exploring the Unconscious 665
Modern Psychodynamic Therapies 666
Humanistic–Existential Psychotherapy 666
Evaluating Insight Therapies 667
Behavioural, Cognitive, and Group Therapies 668
Systematic Desensitization 668
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Virtual Reality
Therapies 669
Aversive Conditioning 671
Cognitive–Behavioural Therapies 671
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy 672
Group and Family Therapies 673
Evaluating Cognitive–Behavioural Therapies 673
Summary 674
Module 16.3 Biomedical Therapies 676
Drug Treatments 677
Antidepressants 677
Myths in Mind Antidepressant Drugs Are Happiness Pills 678
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Is St. John’s Wort
Effective? 679
Mood Stabilizers 680
Antianxiety Drugs 680
Antipsychotic Drugs 680
Evaluating Drug Therapies 681
Technological and Surgical Methods 682
Focal Lesions 683
Electroconvulsive Therapy 683
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 683
Deep Brain Stimulation 684
Summary 685
Glossary 686
References 701
Name Index 752
Subject Index 766