Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, Ninth Edition
By Martin S. Silberberg and Patricia G. Amateis
Detailed Contents:
Chapter 1: Keys to Studying Chemistry: Definitions, Units, and Problem Solving 2
1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 3
The States of Matter 4
The Properties of Matter and Its
Changes 4
The Central Theme in Chemistry 8
The Importance of Energy in the Study
of Matter 8
1.2 The Scientific Approach: Developing
a Model 10
1.3 Measurement and Chemical Problem
Solving 12
General Features of SI Units 12
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 13
Units and Conversion Factors in
Calculations 15
A Systematic Approach to Solving
Chemistry Problems 18
Temperature Scales 23
Extensive and Intensive Properties 25
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement:
Significant Figures 26
Determining Which Digits Are
Significant 27
Significant Figures: Calculations and
Rounding Off 28
Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument
Calibration 30
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 31
PROBLEMS 35
Chapter 2 The Components of Matter 40
2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures:
An Atomic Overview 42
2.2 The Observations That Led to an
Atomic View of Matter 44
Mass Conservation 44
Definite Composition 45
Multiple Proportions 47
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 48
Postulates of the Atomic Theory 48
How the Theory Explains the
Mass Laws 48
2.4 The Observations That Led to the
Nuclear Atom Model 50
Discovery of the Electron and Its
Properties 50
Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 52
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 53
Structure of the Atom 53
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and
Atomic Symbol 54
Isotopes 55
Atomic Masses of the Elements 55
2.6 Elements: A First Look at the
Periodic Table 59
2.7 Compounds: Introduction
to Bonding 62
The Formation of Ionic Compounds 62
The Formation of Covalent
Substances 64
2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names,
and Masses 65
Binary Ionic Compounds 65
Compounds That Contain
Polyatomic Ions 69
Acid Names from Anion Names 71
Binary Covalent Compounds 72
The Simplest Organic Compounds:
Straight-Chain Alkanes 73
Molecular Masses from Chemical
Formulas 74
Representing Molecules with Formulas
and Models 76
2.9 Mixtures: Classification
and Separation 78
An Overview of the Components
of Matter 79
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 81
PROBLEMS 83
Chapter 3 Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 92
3.1 The Mole 93
Defining the Mole 93
Determining Molar Mass 94
Converting Between Amount, Mass, and
Number of Chemical Entities 95
The Importance of Mass Percent 99
3.2 Determining the Formula of
an Unknown Compound 102
Empirical Formulas 102
Molecular Formulas 103
Chemical Formulas and Molecular
Structures; Isomers 107
3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical
Equations 108
3.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant
and Product 113
Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar
Ratios from the Balanced
Equation 113
Reactions That Occur in a Sequence 117
Reactions That Involve a Limiting
Reactant 118
Theoretical, Actual, and Percent
Reaction Yields 124
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 127
PROBLEMS 132
Chapter 4 Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 142
4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role
of Water as a Solvent 143
The Polar Nature of Water 144
Ionic Compounds in Water 144
Covalent Compounds in Water 148
Expressing Concentration in Terms
of Molarity 148
Amount-Mass-Number Conversions
Involving Solutions 149
Preparing and Diluting Molar
Solutions 150
4.2 Precipitation Reactions 154
The Key Event: Formation of a Solid
from Dissolved Ions 154
Predicting Whether a Precipitate
Will Form 156
Stoichiometry of Precipitation
Reactions 159
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 162
The Key Event: Formation of H2O from
H+ and OH− 165
Proton Transfer in Acid-Base
Reactions 165
Stoichiometry of Acid-Base Reactions:
Acid-Base Titrations 169
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)
Reactions 172
The Key Event: Movement of Electrons
Between Reactants 172
Some Essential Redox Terminology 173
Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor
Electron Charge 173
Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions:
Redox Titrations 177
4.5 Elements in Redox Reactions 179
Combination Redox Reactions 179
Decomposition Redox Reactions 180
Displacement Redox Reactions and
Activity Series 182
Combustion Reactions 184
4.6 The Reversibility of Reactions
and the Equilibrium State 186
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 188
PROBLEMS 194
Chapter 5 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 202
5.1 An Overview of the Physical States
of Matter 203
5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 205
Measuring Gas Pressure: Barometers and
Manometers 205
Units of Pressure 207
5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental
Foundations 208
The Relationship Between Volume and
Pressure: Boyle’s Law 209
The Relationship Between Volume and
Temperature: Charles’s Law 210
The Relationship Between Volume and
Amount: Avogadro’s Law 212
Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 213
The Ideal Gas Law 214
Solving Gas Law Problems 215
5.4 Rearrangements of the Ideal
Gas Law 220
The Density of a Gas 220
The Molar Mass of a Gas 222
The Partial Pressure of Each Gas in
a Mixture of Gases 223
The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction
Stoichiometry 226
5.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model
for Gas Behavior 229
How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory
Explains the Gas Laws 229
Effusion and Diffusion 234
The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free
Path and Collision Frequency 236
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: HOW THE GAS LAWS APPLY TO EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 237
5.6 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal
Behavior 239
Effects of Extreme Conditions
on Gas Behavior 239
The van der Waals Equation: Adjusting
the Ideal Gas Law 241
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 242
PROBLEMS 245
Chapter 6 Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 254
6.1 Forms of Energy and Their
Interconversion 255
Defining the System and Its
Surroundings 256
Energy Change (ΔE): Energy Transfer to
or from a System 256
Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy
Transfer 257
The Law of Energy Conservation 259
Units of Energy 260
State Functions and the Path
Independence of the Energy
Change 261
Calculating Pressure-Volume Work
(PV Work) 262
6.2 Enthalpy: Changes at Constant
Pressure 263
The Meaning of Enthalpy 263
Comparing ΔE and ΔH 264
Exothermic and Endothermic
Processes 264
6.3 Calorimetry: Measuring the Heat
of a Chemical or Physical Change 266
Specific Heat Capacity 266
The Two Major Types of
Calorimetry 268
6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 272
6.5 Hess’s Law: Finding ΔH
of Any Reaction 274
6.6 Standard Enthalpies of
Reaction (ΔH°rxn) 276
Formation Equations and Their Standard
Enthalpy Changes 277
Determining ΔH°rxn from ΔH°f Values for
Reactants and Products 278
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: THE FUTURE OF ENERGY USE 280
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 284
PROBLEMS 287
Chapter 7 Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 294
7.1 The Nature of Light 295
The Wave Nature of Light 296
The Particle Nature of Light 299
7.2 Atomic Spectra 302
Line Spectra and the Rydberg
Equation 302
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen
Atom 303
The Energy Levels of the Hydrogen
Atom 305
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: SPECTROMETRY IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 308
7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter
and Energy 310
The Wave Nature of Electrons and the
Particle Nature of Photons 310
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 313
7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model
of the Atom 314
The Atomic Orbital and the Probable
Location of the Electron 314
Quantum Numbers of an Atomic
Orbital 316
Quantum Numbers and Energy
Levels 317
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 319
The Special Case of Energy Levels in
the Hydrogen Atom 322
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 323
PROBLEMS 325
Chapter 8 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 330
8.1 Characteristics of Many-Electron
Atoms 332
The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 332
The Exclusion Principle 333
Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level
Splitting 333
8.2 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and
the Periodic Table 335
Building Up Period 1 336
Building Up Period 2 336
Building Up Period 3 338
Building Up Period 4: The First Transition
Series 338
General Principles of Electron
Configurations 340
Intervening Series: Transition and Inner
Transition Elements 341
Similar Electron Configurations Within
Groups 342
8.3 Trends in Three Atomic
Properties 344
Trends in Atomic Size 345
Trends in Ionization Energy 347
Trends in Electron Affinity 351
8.4 Atomic Properties and Chemical
Reactivity 352
Trends in Metallic Behavior 352
Properties of Monatomic Ions 354
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 361
PROBLEMS 362
Chapter 9 Models of Chemical Bonding 368
9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical
Bonds 369
The Three Ways Elements Combine 369
Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule 371
9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model 372
Why Ionic Compounds Form:
The Importance of Lattice
Energy 373
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 376
How the Model Explains the Properties
of Ionic Compounds 378
9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model 379
The Formation of a Covalent Bond 379
Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs 380
Properties of a Covalent Bond:
Order, Energy, and Length 380
How the Model Explains the Properties
of Covalent Substances 383
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 384
9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical
Change 385
Changes in Bond Energy: Where Does
ΔH°rxn Come From? 385
Using Bond Energies to Calculate
ΔH°rxn 386
Bond Strengths and the Heat Released
from Fuels and Foods 389
9.5 Between the Extremes:
Electronegativity and Bond
Polarity 390
Electronegativity 390
Bond Polarity and Partial Ionic
Character 392
The Gradation in Bonding Across
a Period 394
9.6 An Introduction to Metallic
Bonding 395
The Electron-Sea Model 395
How the Model Explains the Properties
of Metals 396
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 397
PROBLEMS 399
Chapter 10 The Shapes of Molecules 404
10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with
Lewis Structures 405
Applying the Octet Rule to Write
Lewis Structures 405
Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair
Bonding 410
Formal Charge: Selecting the More
Important Resonance Structure 411
Lewis Structures for Exceptions to
the Octet Rule 414
10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory 418
Electron-Group Arrangements and
Molecular Shapes 418
The Molecular Shape with Two Electron
Groups (Linear Arrangement) 419
Molecular Shapes with Three Electron
Groups (Trigonal Planar
Arrangement) 420
Molecular Shapes with Four Electron
Groups (Tetrahedral
Arrangement) 421
Molecular Shapes with Five Electron
Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal
Arrangement) 422
Molecular Shapes with Six Electron
Groups (Octahedral
Arrangement) 423
Using VSEPR Theory to Determine
Molecular Shape 424
Molecular Shapes with More Than One
Central Atom 427
10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular
Polarity 429
Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole
Moment 429
The Effect of Molecular Polarity on
Behavior 431
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY: MOLECULAR SHAPE, BIOLOGICAL RECEPTORS, AND THE SENSE OF SMELL 432
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 433
PROBLEMS 437
Chapter 11 Theories of Covalent Bonding 442
11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and
Orbital Hybridization 443
The Central Themes of VB Theory 443
Types of Hybrid Orbitals 444
11.2 Modes of Orbital Overlap and the
Types of Covalent Bonds 452
Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple
Bonds 452
Orbital Overlap and Rotation Within
a Molecule 455
11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and
Electron Delocalization 455
The Central Themes of MO Theory 456
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of
Period 2 Elements 458
Two Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules:
HF and NO 462
Two Polyatomic Molecules: Benzene and
Ozone 463
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 464
PROBLEMS 466
Chapter 12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 470
12.1 An Overview of Physical States
and Phase Changes 471
A Kinetic-Molecular View of the Three
States 472
Types of Phase Changes and Their
Enthalpies 473
12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase
Changes 475
Heat Involved in Phase Changes 475
The Equilibrium Nature of Phase
Changes 479
Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and
Temperature on Physical State 483
12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces 485
How Close Can Molecules Approach
Each Other? 485
Ion-Dipole Forces 486
Dipole-Dipole Forces 487
The Hydrogen Bond 487
Polarizability and Induced Dipole
Forces 489
Dispersion (London) Forces 490
12.4 Properties of the Liquid State 492
Surface Tension 492
Capillarity 493
Viscosity 494
12.5 The Uniqueness of Water 495
Solvent Properties of Water 495
Thermal Properties of Water 495
Surface Properties of Water 496
The Unusual Density of Solid Water 496
12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties,
and Bonding 497
Structural Features of Solids 497
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS AND SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY 504
Types and Properties of Crystalline
Solids 505
Amorphous Solids 508
Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital
Band Theory 509
12.7 Advanced Materials 511
Electronic Materials 511
Liquid Crystals 513
Ceramic Materials 515
Polymeric Materials 517
Nanotechnology: Designing Materials
Atom by Atom 522
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 524
PROBLEMS 527
Chapter 13 The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids 534
13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular
Forces and Solubility 535
Intermolecular Forces in Solution 536
Liquid Solutions and the Role of
Molecular Polarity 537
Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 539
13.2 Intermolecular Forces and Biological
Macromolecules 541
The Structures of Proteins 541
Dual Polarity in Soaps, Membranes,
and Antibiotics 543
The Structure of DNA 544
13.3 Why Substances Dissolve: Breaking
Down the Solution Process 546
The Heat of Solution and Its
Components 546
The Heat of Hydration: Dissolving Ionic
Solids in Water 547
The Solution Process and the Change in
Entropy 550
13.4 Solubility as an Equilibrium
Process 552
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 552
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 553
13.5 Concentration Terms 555
Molarity and Molality 555
Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 557
Interconverting Concentration
Terms 559
13.6 Colligative Properties of Solutions 560
Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte
Solutions 561
Using Colligative Properties to Find
Solute Molar Mass 566
Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 567
Strong Electrolyte Solutions 567
Applications of Colligative
Properties 570
13.7 The Structure and Properties
of Colloids 571
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING: SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS IN WATER PURIFICATION 573
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 575
PROBLEMS 579
Chapter 14 Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements 588
14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 589
Where Hydrogen Fits in the Periodic
Table 589
Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 590
14.2 Trends Across the Periodic Table:
The Period 2 Elements 591
14.3 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 594
Why the Alkali Metals Are Unusual
Physically 594
Why the Alkali Metals Are
So Reactive 596
14.4 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth
Metals 597
How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals
Compare Physically 597
How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals
Compare Chemically 597
Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and
Magnesium 599
14.5 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 599
How the Transition Elements Influence
This Group’s Properties 599
Features That First Appear in This
Group’s Chemical Properties 601
Highlights of Boron Chemistry 601
Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium
and Aluminum 602
14.6 Group 4A(14): The Carbon
Family 602
How Type of Bonding Affects Physical
Properties 604
How Bonding Changes in This Group’s
Compounds 605
Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 606
Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 607
Diagonal Relationships: Boron
and Silicon 608
14.7 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen
Family 608
The Wide Range of Physical
Behavior 610
Patterns in Chemical Behavior 610
Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 612
Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry 614
14.8 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen
Family 616
How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families
Compare Physically 616
How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families
Compare Chemically 618
Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry:
Range of Oxide Properties 619
Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry 619
14.9 Group 7A(17): The Halogens 621
Physical Behavior of the Halogens 621
Why the Halogens Are
So Reactive 621
Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 623
14.10 Group 8A(18): The Noble
Gases 626
How the Noble Gases and Alkali
Metals Contrast Physically 626
How Noble Gases Can Form
Compounds 626
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 628
PROBLEMS 629
Chapter 15 Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 636
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and
the Characteristics of Organic
Molecules 637
The Structural Complexity of Organic
Molecules 638
The Chemical Diversity of Organic
Molecules 638
15.2 The Structures and Classes of
Hydrocarbons 640
Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen
Skins 640
Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only
Single Bonds 643
Dispersion Forces and the Physical
Properties of Alkanes 645
Constitutional Isomerism 645
Chiral Molecules and Optical
Isomerism 646
Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double
Bonds 648
Restricted Rotation and Geometric
(cis-trans) Isomerism 649
Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple
Bonds 650
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic
Molecules with Delocalized π
Electrons 651
Variations on a Theme: Catenated
Inorganic Hydrides 652
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) SPECTROSCOPY 653
15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic
Reactions 655
Types of Organic Reactions 655
The Redox Process in Organic
Reactions 657
15.4 Properties and Reactivities of
Common Functional Groups 658
Functional Groups with Only Single
Bonds 658
Functional Groups with Double
Bonds 663
Functional Groups with Both Single
and Double Bonds 666
Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 670
15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I:
Synthetic Macromolecules 672
Addition Polymers 672
Condensation Polymers 673
15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II:
Biological Macromolecules 674
Sugars and Polysaccharides 674
Amino Acids and Proteins 676
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 678
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO GENETICS AND FORENSICS: DNA SEQUENCING AND FINGERPRINTING 683
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 685
PROBLEMS 687
Chapter 16 Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 694
16.1 Focusing on Reaction Rate 695
16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 698
Average, Instantaneous, and Initial
Reaction Rates 698
Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant
and Product Concentrations 700
16.3 The Rate Law and Its
Components 702
Some Laboratory Methods for
Determining the Initial Rate 703
Determining Reaction Orders 703
Determining the Rate Constant 708
16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration
Changes over Time 712
Integrated Rate Laws and Reaction
Half-Life for First-Order
Reactions 712
Integrated Rate Law and Reaction
Half-Life for Second-Order
Reactions 716
Integrated Rate Law and Reaction
Half-Life for Zero-Order
Reactions 718
Determining Reaction Orders from an
Integrated Rate Law 718
16.5 Theories of Chemical Kinetics 720
Collision Theory: Basis of the
Rate Law 720
Transition State Theory: What the
Activation Energy Is Used For 722
The Effect of Temperature on Rate 724
16.6 Reaction Mechanisms: The Steps
from Reactant to Product 727
Elementary Reactions and
Molecularity 727
The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction
Mechanism 728
Correlating the Mechanism with
the Rate Law 729
16.7 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Reaction 733
The Basis of Catalytic Action 733
Homogeneous Catalysis 734
Heterogeneous Catalysis 735
Kinetics and Function of Biological
Catalysts 736
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: DEPLETION OF EARTH’S OZONE LAYER 738
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 739
PROBLEMS 743
Chapter 17 Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 752
17.1 The Equilibrium State and
the Equilibrium Constant 753
17.2 The Reaction Quotient and
the Equilibrium Constant 756
The Changing Value of the Reaction
Quotient 756
Writing the Reaction Quotient in Its
Various Forms 757
17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure
Terms: Relation Between Kc
and Kp 763
17.4 Comparing Q and K to Determine
Reaction Direction 764
17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium
Problems 767
Using Quantities to Find the Equilibrium
Constant 767
Using the Equilibrium Constant to Find
Quantities 770
Problems Involving Mixtures of Reactants
and Products 775
17.6 Reaction Conditions and Equilibrium:
Le Châtelier’s Principle 777
The Effect of a Change in
Concentration 777
The Effect of a Change in Pressure
(Volume) 780
The Effect of a Change in
Temperature 782
The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 785
Applying Le Châtelier’s Principle to
the Synthesis of Ammonia 787
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO CELLULAR METABOLISM: DESIGN AND CONTROL OF A METABOLIC PATHWAY 788
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 790
PROBLEMS 793
Chapter 18 Acid-Base Equilibria 802
18.1 Release of H+ or OH− and the
Arrhenius Acid-Base Definition 804
18.2 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-
Lowry Acid-Base Definition 805
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 806
Relative Acid-Base Strength and the
Net Direction of Reaction 807
18.3 Autoionization of Water and
the pH Scale 809
The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization:
The Ion-Product Constant for
Water (Kw) 810
Expressing the Hydronium Ion
Concentration: The pH Scale 811
18.4 Strong Acids and Bases and
pH Calculations 813
Strong Acids 813
Strong Bases 814
Calculating pH for Strong Acids
and Bases 814
18.5 Weak Acids and Their Equilibria
Calculations 815
The Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka) 815
Finding Ka, Given Concentrations 818
Finding Concentrations, Given Ka 819
The Effect of Concentration on the Extent
of Acid Dissociation 821
The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 822
18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid
Strength 825
Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 825
Acid Strength of Oxoacids 825
Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 826
18.7 Weak Bases and Their Relation to
Weak Acids 827
Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia
and the Amines 828
Anions of Weak Acids as
Weak Bases 830
The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a
Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 830
18.8 Acid-Base Properties of Salt
Solutions 833
Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions 833
Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions 833
Salts That Yield Basic Solutions 834
Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and
Weakly Basic Anions 835
Salts of Amphiprotic Anions 835
18.9 Generalizing the Brønsted-Lowry
Concept: The Leveling Effect 837
18.10 Electron-Pair Donation and the
Lewis Acid-Base Definition 838
Molecules as Lewis Acids 838
Metal Cations as Lewis Acids 839
An Overview of Acid-Base
Definitions 840
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 841
PROBLEMS 844
Chapter 19 Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 852
19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffers 853
What a Buffer Is and How It Works: The
Common-Ion Effect 853
The Henderson-Hasselbalch
Equation 858
Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 859
Preparing a Buffer 861
19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves 863
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titration
Curves 863
Weak Acid–Strong Base
Titration Curves 866
Weak Base–Strong Acid Titration
Curves 870
Monitoring pH with Acid-Base
Indicators 872
Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids 874
Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic
Acids 875
19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic
Compounds 876
The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the
Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp) 876
Calculations Involving the Solubility-
Product Constant 877
Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 880
Effect of pH on Solubility 882
Applying Ionic Equilibria to the Formation
of a Limestone Cave 883
Predicting the Formation of a
Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp 884
Separating Ions by Selective
Precipitation and Simultaneous
Equilibria 886
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: THE ACID-RAIN PROBLEM 888
19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 890
Formation of Complex Ions 890
Complex Ions and the Solubility
of Precipitates 891
Complex Ions of Amphoteric
Hydroxides 893
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 895
PROBLEMS 899
Chapter 20: Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and
Reaction Direction 906
20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Predicting Spontaneous Change 907
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Does Not Predict Spontaneous
Change 908
The Sign of ΔH Does Not Predict
Spontaneous Change 908
Freedom of Particle Motion and
Dispersal of Kinetic Energy 909
Entropy and the Number of
Microstates 910
Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics 913
Standard Molar Entropies and the
Third Law 913
Predicting Relative S ° of a System 914
20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of
a Reaction 918
Entropy Changes in the System: Standard
Entropy of Reaction (ΔS°rxn) 918
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings:
The Other Part of the Total 920
The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium
State 922
Spontaneous Exothermic and
Endothermic Changes 923
20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 924
Free Energy Change and Reaction
Spontaneity 924
Calculating Standard Free Energy
Changes 925
The Free Energy Change and the Work a
System Can Do 927
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction
Spontaneity 928
Coupling of Reactions to Drive a
Nonspontaneous Change 932
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO BIOLOGICAL ENERGETICS: THE UNIVERSAL ROLE OF ATP 933
20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and
Reaction Direction 934
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 940
PROBLEMS 943
Chapter 21 Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 950
21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical
Cells 951
A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction
Concepts 951
Half-Reaction Method for Balancing
Redox Reactions 952
An Overview of Electrochemical
Cells 955
21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous
Reactions to Generate Electrical
Energy 957
Construction and Operation of a
Voltaic Cell 957
Notation for a Voltaic Cell 960
Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work? 961
21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic
Cell 962
Standard Cell Potential (E°cell) 962
Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and
Reducing Agents 965
Using E°half-cell Values to Write
Spontaneous Redox Reactions 967
Explaining the Activity Series of
the Metals 970
21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work 971
Standard Cell Potential and the
Equilibrium Constant 971
The Effect of Concentration on Cell
Potential 974
Following Changes in Potential During
Cell Operation 975
Concentration Cells 976
21.5 Electrochemical Processes
in Batteries 980
Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries 980
Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 981
Fuel Cells 982
21.6 Corrosion: An Environmental
Voltaic Cell 984
The Corrosion of Iron 984
Protecting Against the Corrosion
of Iron 985
21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical
Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous
Reactions 986
Construction and Operation of an
Electrolytic Cell 986
Predicting the Products of
Electrolysis 988
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The
Relation Between Amounts of
Charge and Products 992
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO BIOLOGICAL ENERGETICS: CELLULAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND THE PRODUCTION OF ATP 994
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 996
PROBLEMS 999
Chapter 22 The Elements in Nature and Industry 1008
22.1 How the Elements Occur in
Nature 1009
Earth’s Structure and the Abundance of
the Elements 1009
Sources of the Elements 1013
22.2 The Cycling of Elements Through
the Environment 1014
The Carbon Cycle 1014
The Nitrogen Cycle 1016
The Phosphorus Cycle 1017
22.3 Metallurgy: Extracting a Metal
from Its Ore 1020
Pretreating the Ore 1021
Converting Mineral to Element 1022
Refining and Alloying the Element 1024
22.4 Tapping the Crust: Isolation and Uses
of Selected Elements 1026
Producing the Alkali Metals: Sodium
and Potassium 1026
The Indispensable Three: Iron, Copper,
and Aluminum 1027
Mining the Sea for Magnesium 1033
The Sources and Uses of
Hydrogen 1034
22.5 Chemical Manufacturing: Two Case
Studies 1037
Sulfuric Acid, the Most Important
Chemical 1037
The Chlor-Alkali Process 1040
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 1041
PROBLEMS 1042
Chapter 23 Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 1048
23.1 Properties of the Transition
Elements 1049
Electron Configurations of the Transition
Metals and Their Ions 1050
Atomic and Physical Properties of
the Transition Elements 1052
Chemical Properties of the Transition
Elements 1054
23.2 The Inner Transition Elements 1056
The Lanthanides 1056
The Actinides 1057
23.3 Coordination Compounds 1058
Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers,
Geometries, and Ligands 1058
Formulas and Names of Coordination
Compounds 1060
Isomerism in Coordination
Compounds 1064
23.4 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and
Properties of Complex Ions 1067
Applying Valence Bond Theory to
Complex Ions 1067
Crystal Field Theory 1069
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE: TRANSITION METALS AS ESSENTIAL DIETARY TRACE ELEMENTS 1076
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 1078
PROBLEMS 1080
Chapter 24 Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 1086
24.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear
Stability 1087
Comparing Chemical and Nuclear
Change 1088
The Components of the Nucleus:
Terms and Notation 1088
The Discovery of Radioactivity and
the Types of Emissions 1089
Modes of Radioactive Decay; Balancing
Nuclear Equations 1089
Nuclear Stability and the Mode
of Decay 1093
24.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive
Decay 1097
Detection and Measurement of
Radioactivity 1097
The Rate of Radioactive Decay 1098
Radioisotopic Dating 1102
24.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced
Changes in Nuclei 1104
Early Transmutation Experiments;
Nuclear Shorthand Notation 1104
Particle Accelerators and the
Transuranium Elements 1105
24.4 Ionization: Effects of Nuclear
Radiation on Matter 1107
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living
Tissue 1108
Background Sources of Ionizing
Radiation 1110
Assessing the Risk from Ionizing
Radiation 1111
24.5 Applications of Radioisotopes 1112
Radioactive Tracers 1112
Additional Applications of Ionizing
Radiation 1114
24.6 The Interconversion of Mass and
Energy 1115
The Mass Difference Between a Nucleus
and Its Nucleons 1116
Nuclear Binding Energy and Binding
Energy per Nucleon 1117
24.7 Applications of Fission
and Fusion 1119
The Process of Nuclear Fission 1119
The Promise of Nuclear Fusion 1123
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO COSMOLOGY: ORIGIN OF THE
ELEMENTS IN THE STARS 1124
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 1126
PROBLEMS 1129
Appendix A Common Mathematical
Operations in Chemistry A-1
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values
for Selected Substances A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants for
Selected Substances A-8
Appendix D Standard Electrode
(Half-Cell) Potentials A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected
Problems A-15
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
LIST OF SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Molecular-scene problems are shown in color.)
Chapter 1
1.1 Visualizing Change on the Atomic Scale 6
1.2 Distinguishing Between Physical and Chemical Change 7
1.3 Converting Units of Length 18
1.4 Converting Units of Volume 19
1.5 Converting Units of Mass 20
1.6 Converting Units Raised to a Power 21
1.7 Calculating Density from Mass and Volume 22
1.8 Converting Units of Temperature 25
1.9 Determining the Number of Significant Figures 27
1.10 Significant Figures and Rounding 30
Chapter 2
2.1 Distinguishing Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
at the Atomic Scale 43
2.2 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound 46
2.3 Visualizing the Mass Laws 49
2.4 Determining the Numbers of Subatomic Particles in the
Isotopes of an Element 55
2.5 Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element 57
2.6 Identifying an Element from Its Z Value 61
2.7 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms 63
2.8 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds 67
2.9 Determining Formulas of Binary Ionic Compounds 67
2.10 Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds of
Metals That Form More Than One Ion 69
2.11 Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Containing Polyatomic Ions (Including Hydrates) 70
2.12 Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas of Ionic
Compounds 71
2.13 Determining Names and Formulas of Anions and Acids 72
2.14 Determining Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent
Compounds 72
2.15 Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas of Binary
Covalent Compounds 73
2.16 Calculating the Molecular Mass of a Compound 75
2.17 Using Molecular Depictions to Determine Formula, Name,
and Mass 75
Chapter 3
3.1 Converting Between Mass and Amount of an Element 96
3.2 Converting Between Number of Entities and Amount
of an Element 97
3.3 Converting Between Number of Entities and Mass
of an Element 97
3.4 Converting Between Number of Entities and Mass
of a Compound 98
3.5 Calculating the Mass Percent of Each Element in a
Compound from the Formula 100
3.6 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound 101
3.7 Determining an Empirical Formula from Masses of
Elements 102
3.8 Determining a Molecular Formula from Elemental Analysis
and Molar Mass 104
3.9 Determining a Molecular Formula from Combustion
Analysis 105
3.10 Balancing a Chemical Equation 111
3.11 Writing a Balanced Equation from a Molecular
Scene 112
3.12 Calculating Quantities of Reactants and Products: Amount
(mol) to Amount (mol) and to Mass (g) 115
3.13 Calculating Quantities of Reactants and Products:
Mass to Mass 116
3.14 Writing an Overall Equation for a Reaction Sequence 117
3.15 Using Molecular Depictions in a Limiting-Reactant
Problem 120
3.16 Calculating Quantities in a Limiting-Reactant Problem:
Amount to Amount 121
3.17 Calculating Quantities in a Limiting-Reactant Problem:
Mass to Mass 122
3.18 Calculating Percent Yield 125
Chapter 4
4.1 Using Molecular Scenes to Depict an Ionic Compound
in Aqueous Solution 146
4.2 Determining Amount (mol) of Ions in Solution 147
4.3 Calculating the Molarity of a Solution 148
4.4 Calculating Mass of Solute in a Given Volume of Solution 149
4.5 Determining Amount (mol) of Ions in a Solution 150
4.6 Preparing a Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution 151
4.7 Visualizing Changes in Concentration 152
4.8 Predicting Whether a Precipitation Reaction Occurs;
Writing Ionic Equations 157
4.9 Using Molecular Depictions in Precipitation Reactions 158
4.10 Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products in a
Precipitation Reaction 160
4.11 Solving a Limiting-Reactant Problem for a Precipitation
Reaction 161
4.12 Determining the Number of H+ (or OH−) Ions in Solution 164
4.13 Writing Ionic Equations and Proton-Transfer Equations
for Acid-Base Reactions 168
4.14 Calculating the Amounts of Reactants and Products in an
Acid-Base Reaction 169
4.15 Finding the Concentration of an Acid from a Titration 171
4.16 Determining the Oxidation Number of Each Element
in a Compound (or Ion) 174
4.17 Identifying Redox Reactions and Oxidizing and Reducing
Agents 175
4.18 Finding the Amount of Reducing Agent by Titration 177
4.19 Identifying the Type of Redox Reaction 185
Chapter 5
5.1 Converting Units of Pressure 208
5.2 Applying the Volume-Pressure Relationship 215
5.3 Applying the Volume-Temperature and Pressure-
Temperature Relationships 216
5.4 Applying the Volume-Amount and Pressure-Amount
Relationships 216
5.5 Applying the Volume-Pressure-Temperature
Relationship 217
5.6 Solving for an Unknown Gas Variable at Fixed
Conditions 218
5.7 Using Gas Laws to Determine a Balanced Equation 219
5.8 Calculating Gas Density 221
5.9 Finding the Molar Mass of a Volatile Liquid 223
5.10 Applying Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 224
5.11 Calculating the Amount of Gas Collected over Water 226
5.12 Using Gas Variables to Find Amounts of Reactants
or Products I 227
5.13 Using Gas Variables to Find Amounts of Reactants
or Products II 228
5.14 Applying Graham’s Law of Effusion 234
Chapter 6
6.1 Determining the Change in Internal Energy of a System 260
6.2 Calculating Pressure-Volume Work Done by or on a
System 262
6.3 Drawing Enthalpy Diagrams and Determining the Sign
of ΔH 265
6.4 Relating Quantity of Heat and Temperature Change 267
6.5 Determining the Specific Heat Capacity of a Solid 268
6.6 Determining the Enthalpy Change of an Aqueous
Reaction 269
6.7 Calculating the Heat of a Combustion Reaction 271
6.8 Using the Enthalpy Change of a Reaction (ΔH ) to Find the
Amount of a Substance 273
6.9 Using Hess’s Law to Calculate an Unknown ΔH 275
6.10 Writing Formation Equations 277
6.11 Calculating ΔH°rxn from ΔH°f Values 279
Chapter 7
7.1 Interconverting Wavelength and Frequency 297
7.2 Interconverting Energy, Wavelength, and Frequency 301
7.3 Determining ΔE and λ of an Electron Transition 307
7.4 Calculating the de Broglie Wavelength of an Electron 311
7.5 Applying the Uncertainty Principle 313
7.6 Determining Quantum Numbers for an Energy Level 317
7.7 Determining Sublevel Names and Orbital Quantum
Numbers 318
7.8 Identifying Incorrect Quantum Numbers 318
Chapter 8
8.1 Determining Electron Configurations 343
8.2 Ranking Elements by Atomic Size 346
8.3 Ranking Elements by First Ionization Energy 349
8.4 Identifying an Element from Its Ionization Energies 351
8.5 Writing Electron Configurations of Main-Group Ions 355
8.6 Writing Electron Configurations and Predicting Magnetic
Behavior of Transition Metal Ions 358
8.7 Ranking Ions by Size 360
Chapter 9
9.1 Depicting Ion Formation 373
9.2 Predicting Relative Lattice Energy from Ionic Properties 377
9.3 Comparing Bond Length and Bond Strength 382
9.4 Using Bond Energies to Calculate ΔH°rxn 388
9.5 Determining Bond Polarity from EN Values 393
Chapter 10
10.1 Writing Lewis Structures for Species with Single Bonds and
One Central Atom 407
10.2 Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules with Single Bonds and
More Than One Central Atom 408
10.3 Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules with Multiple
Bonds 409
10.4 Writing Resonance Structures and Assigning Formal
Charges 413
10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Octet-Rule Exceptions 417
10.6 Examining Shapes with Two, Three, or Four Electron
Groups 426
10.7 Examining Shapes with Five or Six Electron Groups 427
10.8 Predicting Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central
Atom 428
10.9 Predicting the Polarity of Molecules 430
Chapter 11
11.1 Postulating Hybrid Orbitals in a Molecule 450
11.2 Describing the Types of Orbitals and Bonds in Molecules 454
11.3 Predicting Stability of Species Using MO Diagrams 458
11.4 Using MO Theory to Explain Bond Properties 461
Chapter 12
12.1 Finding the Heat of a Phase Change Depicted
by Molecular Scenes 477
12.2 Applying the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 481
12.3 Using a Phase Diagram to Predict Phase Changes 484
12.4 Drawing Hydrogen Bonds Between Molecules
of a Substance 488
12.5 Identifying the Types of Intermolecular Forces 491
12.6 Determining the Number of Particles per Unit Cell and the
Coordination Number 499
12.7 Determining Atomic Radius 502
12.8 Determining Atomic Radius from the Unit Cell 503
Chapter 13
13.1 Predicting Relative Solubilities 539
13.2 Calculating an Aqueous Ionic Heat of Solution 549
13.3 Using Henry’s Law to Calculate Gas Solubility 554
13.4 Calculating Molality 556
13.5 Expressing Concentrations in Parts by Mass, Parts by
Volume, and Mole Fraction 558
13.6 Interconverting Concentration Terms 559
13.7 Using Raoult’s Law to Find ΔP 561
13.8 Determining Boiling and Freezing Points of
a Solution 564
13.9 Determining Molar Mass from Colligative Properties 566
13.10 Depicting Strong Electrolyte Solutions 568
Chapter 15
15.1 Drawing Hydrocarbons 641
15.2 Naming Hydrocarbons and Understanding Chirality and
Geometric Isomerism 650
15.3 Recognizing the Type of Organic Reaction 656
15.4 Predicting the Reactions of Alcohols, Alkyl Halides, and
Amines 662
15.5 Predicting the Steps in a Reaction Sequence 665
15.6 Predicting Reactions of the Carboxylic Acid Family 669
15.7 Recognizing Functional Groups 671
Chapter 16
16.1 Expressing Rate in Terms of Changes in Concentration
with Time 701
16.2 Determining Reaction Orders from Rate Laws 705
16.3 Determining Reaction Orders and Rate Constants from
Rate Data 709
16.4 Determining Reaction Orders from Molecular Scenes 710
16.5 Determining the Reactant Concentration After a Given Time
in a First-Order Reaction 712
16.6 Using Molecular Scenes to Find Quantities at Various
Times 714
16.7 Determining the Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction 715
16.8 Determining Reactant Concentration and Half-Life for
Second-Order Reactions 717
16.9 Drawing Reaction Energy Diagrams and Transition States 724
16.10 Determining the Energy of Activation 726
16.11 Determining Molecularities and Rate Laws for Elementary
Steps 728
16.12 Identifying Intermediates and Correlating Rate Laws and
Reaction Mechanisms 731
Chapter 17
17.1 Writing the Reaction Quotient from the Balanced
Equation 759
17.2 Finding K for Reactions Multiplied by a Common Factor,
Reversed, or Written as an Overall Process 761
17.3 Converting Between Kc and Kp 764
17.4 Using Molecular Scenes to Determine Reaction
Direction 765
17.5 Using Concentrations to Determine Reaction Direction 766
17.6 Calculating Kc from Concentration Data 769
17.7 Determining Equilibrium Concentrations from Kc 770
17.8 Determining Equilibrium Concentrations from Initial
Concentrations and Kc 770
17.9 Making a Simplifying Assumption to Calculate Equilibrium
Concentrations 773
17.10 Predicting Reaction Direction and Calculating Equilibrium
Concentrations 775
17.11 Predicting the Effect of a Change in Concentration
on the Equilibrium Position 779
17.12 Predicting the Effect of a Change in Volume (Pressure)
on the Equilibrium Position 781
17.13 Predicting the Effect of a Change in Temperature
on the Equilibrium Position 783
17.14 Calculating the Change in Kc with a Change in
Temperature 784
17.15 Determining Equilibrium Parameters from Molecular
Scenes 785
Chapter 18
18.1 Identifying Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 806
18.2 Predicting the Net Direction of an Acid-Base Reaction 807
18.3 Using Molecular Scenes to Predict the Net Direction
of an Acid-Base Reaction 809
18.4 Calculating [H3O+] or [OH−] in Aqueous Solution 811
18.5 Calculating [H3O+], pH, [OH−], and pOH for Strong Acids
and Bases 814
18.6 Finding Ka of a Weak Acid from the Solution pH 818
18.7 Determining Concentration and pH from Ka and
Initial [HA] 820
18.8 Finding the Percent Dissociation of a Weak Acid 821
18.9 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations for a
Polyprotic Acid 823
18.10 Determining pH from Kb and Initial [B] 829
18.11 Determining the pH of a Solution of A− 831
18.12 Predicting Relative Acidity of Salt Solutions from Reactions
of the Ions with Water 834
18.13 Predicting the Relative Acidity of a Salt Solution from
Ka and Kb of the Ions 835
18.14 Identifying Lewis Acids and Bases 840
Chapter 19
19.1 Calculating the Effect of Added H3O+ or OH− on
Buffer pH 856
19.2 Using Molecular Scenes to Examine Buffers 860
19.3 Preparing a Buffer 862
19.4 Finding the pH During a Weak Acid–Strong Base
Titration 868
19.5 Writing Ion-Product Expressions 877
19.6 Determining Ksp from Solubility 878
19.7 Determining Solubility from Ksp 879
19.8 Calculating the Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 881
19.9 Predicting the Effect on Solubility of Adding Strong Acid 883
19.10 Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 884
19.11 Using Molecular Scenes to Predict Whether a Precipitate
Will Form 885
19.12 Separating Ions by Selective Precipitation 887
19.13 Calculating the Concentration of a Complex Ion 891
19.14 Calculating the Effect of Complex-Ion Formation
on Solubility 892
Chapter 20
20.1 Predicting Relative Entropy Values 917
20.2 Calculating the Standard Entropy of Reaction,
ΔS°rxn 919
20.3 Determining Reaction Spontaneity 921
20.4 Calculating ΔG°rxn from Enthalpy and Entropy Values 925
20.5 Calculating ΔG°rxn from ΔG°f Values 926
20.6 Using Molecular Scenes to Determine the Signs of ΔH, ΔS,
and ΔG 929
20.7 Determining the Effect of Temperature on ΔG 930
20.8 Finding the Temperature at Which a Reaction Becomes
Spontaneous 931
20.9 Exploring the Relationship Between ΔG° and K 935
20.10 Using Molecular Scenes to Find ΔG for a Reaction
at Nonstandard Conditions 936
20.11 Calculating ΔG at Nonstandard Conditions 938
Chapter 21
21.1 Balancing a Redox Reaction in Basic Solution 954
21.2 Describing a Voltaic Cell with a Diagram and
Notation 960
21.3 Using E°half-cell Values to Find E°cell 963
21.4 Calculating an Unknown E°half-cell from E°cell 965
21.5 Writing Spontaneous Redox Reactions and Ranking
Oxidizing and Reducing Agents by Strength 968
21.6 Calculating K and ΔG° from E°cell 973
21.7 Using the Nernst Equation to Calculate Ecell 974
21.8 Calculating the Potential of a Concentration Cell 978
21.9 Predicting the Electrolysis Products of a Molten Salt
Mixture 989
21.10 Predicting the Electrolysis Products of Aqueous Salt
Solutions 991
21.11 Applying the Relationship Among Current, Time,
and Amount of Substance 993
Chapter 23
23.1 Writing Electron Configurations of Transition Metal
Atoms and Ions 1052
23.2 Finding the Number of Unpaired Electrons 1057
23.3 Finding the Coordination Number and Charge of the Central
Metal Ion in a Coordination Compound 1061
23.4 Writing Names and Formulas of Coordination
Compounds 1063
23.5 Determining the Type of Stereoisomerism 1067
23.6 Ranking Crystal Field Splitting Energies (Δ) for Complex Ions
of a Metal 1073
23.7 Identifying High-Spin and Low-Spin Complex Ions 1074
Chapter 24
24.1 Writing Equations for Nuclear Reactions 1092
24.2 Predicting Nuclear Stability 1094
24.3 Predicting the Mode of Nuclear Decay 1096
24.4 Calculating the Specific Activity and the Decay Constant of a
Radioactive Nuclide 1099
24.5 Finding the Number of Radioactive Nuclei 1101
24.6 Applying Radiocarbon Dating 1103
24.7 Writing Equations for Transmutation Reactions 1107
24.8 Calculating the Binding Energy per Nucleon 1117