Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition
By Frederick J Gravetter and Lori-Ann B. Forzano
Contents:
Preface xvii
About the Authors xxv
Chapter 1
Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge,
and the Scientific Method 1
Chapter learning objeCtives 1
Chapter overvieW 2
1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 2
The Method of Tenacity 3
The Method of Intuition 3
The Method of Authority 4
The Rational Method 6
The Empirical Method 7
Summary 9
1.2 The Scientific Method 10
The Steps of the Scientific Method 11
Other Elements of the Scientific Method 14
Science versus Pseudoscience 17
1.3 The Research Process 18
Quantitative and Qualitative Research 18
The Steps of the Research Process 19
Chapter Summary 26
Key Words 26
Exercises 27
Learning Check Answers 27
Chapter 2 research Ideas and hypotheses 29
Chapter learning objeCtives 29
Chapter overvieW 30
2.1 Getting Started: Identifying a Topic Area 31
Common Sources of Research Topics 31
2.2 Searching the Existing Research Literature
in a Topic Area 33
Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature 34
Primary and Secondary Sources 36
The Purpose of a Literature Search 37
Conducting a Literature Search 37
Using Online Databases 39
Using PsycINFO 39
Screening Articles during a Literature Search 40
Ending a Literature Search 41
2.3 Finding an Idea for a Research Study from a
Published Research Article 42
Find Suggestions for Future Research 42
Combine or Contrast Existing Results 42
The Components of a Research Article—Critical Reading 42
2.4 Using a Research Idea to Form a Hypothesis and
Create a Research Study 45
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis 45
Using a Hypothesis to Create a Research Study 48
Chapter Summary 49
Key Words 49
Exercises 49
Learning Check Answers 50
Chapter 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 51
Chapter learning objeCtives 51
Chapter overvieW 52
3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions 52
Theories and Constructs 53
Operational Definitions 54
Limitations of Operational Definitions 54
Using Operational Definitions 55
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 56
Consistency of a Relationship 57
Validity of Measurement 58
Reliability of Measurement 61
The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 64
3.3 Scales of Measurement 65
The Nominal Scale 66
The Ordinal Scale 66
Interval and Ratio Scales 66
Selecting a Scale of Measurement 68
3.4 Modalities of Measurement 69
Self-Report Measures 70
Physiological Measures 70
Behavioral Measures 70
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement 72
Multiple Measures 72
Sensitivity and Range Effects 72
Artifacts: Experimenter Bias and Participant Reactivity 73
Selecting a Measurement Procedure 77
Chapter Summary 78
Key Words 78
Exercises 79
Learning Check Answers 80
Chapter 4 ethics in research 81
Chapter learning objeCtives 81
Chapter overvieW 82
4.1 Introduction 83
Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process 83
The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility 84
4.2 Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research 84
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants 84
American Psychological Association Guidelines 87
The Institutional Review Board 97
4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research 99
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Nonhuman Subjects 100
American Psychological Association Guidelines 100
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 101
4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity 102
Fraud in Science 102
Plagiarism 104
Chapter Summary 106
Key Words 106
Exercises 107
Learning Check Answers 107
Chapter 5 Selecting research Participants 109
Chapter learning objeCtives 109
Chapter overvieW 110
5.1 Introduction to Sampling 110
Populations and Samples 111
Representative Samples 113
Sample Size 113
Sampling Basics 115
5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 116
Simple Random Sampling 116
Systematic Sampling 118
Stratified Random Sampling 118
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling 120
Cluster Sampling 120
Combined-Strategy Sampling 121
A Summary of Probability Sampling Methods 121
5.3 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 122
Convenience Sampling 122
Quota Sampling 123
Chapter Summary 125
Key Words 125
Exercises 126
Learning Check Answers 126
Chapter 6 research Strategies and Validity 127
Chapter learning objeCtives 127
Chapter overvieW 128
6.1 Research Strategies 129
The Descriptive Research Strategy: Examining
Individual Variables 130
Strategies That Examine Relationships between Variables 130
The Correlational Research Strategy:
Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual 131
Comparing Two or More Sets of Scores: The
Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental
Research Strategies 132
Nonexperimental and Correlational Research 134
Research Strategy Summary 135
Research Strategies, Research Designs, and
Research Procedures 136
Data Structures and Statistical Analysis 137
Summary 138
6.2 External and Internal Validity 138
External Validity 139
Internal Validity 140
Validity and the Quality of a Research Study 141
6.3 Threats to External Validity 142
Category 1: Generalizing across Participants or Subjects 142
Category 2: Generalizing across Features of a Study 144
Category 3: Generalizing across Features of the Measures 145
6.4 Threats to Internal Validity 147
Extraneous Variables 147
Confounding Variables 148
Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables, and Internal Validity 148
6.5 More about Internal and External Validity 152
Balancing Internal and External Validity 152
Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity 152
Exaggerated Variables 153
Validity and Individual Research Strategies 153
Chapter Summary 154
Key Words 155
Exercises 155
Learning Check Answers 156
Chapter 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 157
Chapter Learning Objectives 157
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 158
7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 159
Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy 160
Causation and the Third-Variable Problem 162
Causation and the Directionality Problem 162
Controlling Nature 163
7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment 164
Manipulation 165
Control 167
Extraneous Variables and Confounding Variables 168
7.3 Controlling Extraneous Variables 170
Control by Holding Constant or Matching 170
Control by Randomization 172
Comparing Methods of Control 173
Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods 174
7.4 Control Conditions and Manipulation Checks 174
Control Conditions 175
Manipulation Checks 177
7.5 Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies 178
Simulation 179
Field Studies 180
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies 180
Chapter Summary 181
Key Words 182
Exercises 182
Learning Check Answers 183
Chapter 8 experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 185
Chapter learning objeCtives 185
Chapter overvieW 186
8.1 Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments 186
Review of the Experimental Research Strategy 187
Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs 187
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs 189
8.2 Individual Differences as Confounding Variables 191
Other Confounding Variables 191
Equivalent Groups 192
8.3 Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences 193
Random Assignment (Randomization) 193
Matching Groups (Matched Assignment) 194
Holding Variables Constant or Restricting Range of Variability 195
Summary and Recommendations 195
8.4 Individual Differences and Variability 196
Differences between Treatments and Variance within Treatments 198
Minimizing Variance within Treatments 199
Summary and Recommendations 200
8.5 Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects
Experimental Designs 201
Differential Attrition 202
Communication between Groups 202
8.6 Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-
Subjects Designs 204
Two-Group Mean Difference 204
Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups 205
Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups 206
Chapter Summary 208
Key Words 208
Exercises 208
Learning Check Answers 209
Chapter 9 experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 211
Chapter learning objeCtives 211
Chapter overvieW 212
9.1 Within-Subjects Experiments and Internal Validity 212
Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs 212
Threats to Internal Validity of Within-Subjects Experiments 214
Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects 217
Order Effects as a Confounding Variable 217
9.2 Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects 219
Controlling Time 220
Switch to a Between-Subjects Design 220
Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments with Respect to Time 220
Limitations of Counterbalancing 222
9.3 Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs 225
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs 225
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs 229
Choosing Within- or Between-Subjects Design 231
Matched-Subjects Designs 231
9.4 Applications and Statistical Analysis of Within-
Subjects Designs 233
Two-Treatment Designs 233
Multiple-Treatment Designs 234
Chapter Summary 235
Key Words 235
Exercises 236
Learning Check Answers 236
Chapter 10 the nonexperimental and Quasi-experimental
Strategies: nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post,
and Developmental Designs 237
Chapter learning objeCtives 237
Chapter overvieW 238
10.1 Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental
Research Strategies 239
The Structure of Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 240
10.2 Between-Subjects Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental
Designs: Nonequivalent Group Designs 242
Threats to Internal Validity for Nonequivalent Group Designs 243
Nonexperimental Designs with Nonequivalent Groups 244
A Quasi-Experimental Design with Nonequivalent Groups 247
10.3 Within-Subjects Nonexperimental and
Quasi-Experimental Designs: Pre–Post Designs 249
Threats to Internal Validity for Pre–Post Designs 250
A Nonexperimental Pre–Post Design 250
A Quasi-Experimental Pre–Post Design 251
Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs 253
10.4 Developmental Research Designs 254
The Cross-Sectional Developmental Research Design 254
The Longitudinal Developmental Research Design 257
10.5 Applications, Statistical Analysis, and Terminology
for Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental,
and Developmental Designs 260
Application and Analysis 260
Terminology in Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental, and
Developmental Designs 261
Chapter Summary 262
Key Words 263
Exercises 263
Learning Check Answers 264
Chapter 11 factorial Designs 265
Chapter learning objeCtives 265
Chapter overvieW 266
11.1 Introduction to Factorial Designs 267
11.2 Main Effects and Interactions 269
Main Effects 270
The Interaction between Factors 271
Alternative Views of the Interaction between Factors 272
Identifying Interactions 274
Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions 274
Independence of Main Effects and Interactions 276
11.3 Types of Factorial Designs and Analysis 277
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 278
Experimental and Nonexperimental or
Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies 279
Pretest–Posttest Control Group Designs 281
Higher-Order Factorial Designs 282
Statistical Analysis of Factorial Designs 283
11.4 Applications of Factorial Designs 284
Expanding and Replicating a Previous Study 284
Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Designs 285
Evaluating Order Effects in Within-Subjects Designs 286
Chapter Summary 292
Key Words 293
Exercises 293
Learning Check Answers 294
Chapter 12 the Correlational research Strategy 295
Chapter learning objeCtives 295
Chapter overvieW 296
12.1 An Introduction to Correlational Research 296
Comparing Correlational, Experimental, and
Differential Research 297
12.2 The Data and Statistical Analysis for
Correlational Studies 298
Evaluating Relationships for Numerical Scores
(Interval or Ratio Scales) and Ranks (Ordinal Scale) 299
Evaluating Relationships for Non-Numerical Scores
from Nominal Scales 301
Interpreting and Statistically Evaluating a Correlation 303
12.3 Applications of the Correlational Strategy 305
Prediction 305
Reliability and Validity 306
Evaluating Theories 306
12.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational
Research Strategy 307
Relationships with More Than Two Variables 309
Chapter Summary 311
Key Words 311
Exercises 311
Learning Check Answers 312
Chapter 13 the Descriptive research Strategy 313
Chapter learning objeCtives 313
Chapter overvieW 314
13.1 An Introduction to Descriptive Research 314
13.2 The Observational Research Design 315
Behavioral Observation 316
Content Analysis and Archival Research 318
Types of Observation and Examples 318
Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational
Research Designs 321
13.3 The Survey Research Design 322
Types of Questions 324
Constructing a Survey 327
Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals 328
Administering a Survey 329
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 332
13.4 The Case Study Design 334
Applications of the Case Study Design 334
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design 336
Chapter Summary 338
Key Words 338
Exercises 338
Learning Check Answers 339
Chapter 14 Single-Case experimental research Designs 341
Chapter learning objeCtives 341
Chapter overvieW 342
14.1 Introduction 343
Critical Elements of a Single-Case Experimental Design 344
Evaluating the Results from a Single-Case Study 344
14.2 Phases and Phase Changes 346
Level, Trend, and Stability 347
Changing Phases 350
Visual Inspection Techniques 351
14.3 Reversal Designs: ABAB and Variations 355
Limitations of the ABAB Design 357
Variations on the ABAB Design: Creating More Complex
Phase-Change Designs 358
14.4 Multiple-Baseline Designs 361
Characteristics of a Multiple-Baseline Design 361
Component Analysis Designs 364
Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Design 365
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multiple-Baseline Design 366
14.5 General Strengths and Weaknesses
of Single-Case Designs 368
Advantages of Single-Case Designs 369
Disadvantages of Single-Case Designs 369
Chapter Summary 371
Key Words 372
Exercises 372
Learning Check Answers 372
Chapter 15 Statistical evaluation of Data 373
Chapter learning objeCtives 373
Chapter overvieW 374
15.1 The Role of Statistics in the Research Process 374
Planning Ahead 375
Statistics Terminology 375
15.2 Descriptive Statistics 377
Frequency Distributions 377
Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores) 379
Describing Non-Numerical Data from Nominal and
Ordinal Scales of Measurement 381
Using Graphs to Compare Groups of Scores 382
Correlations 384
Regression 387
Multiple Regression 388
15.3 Inferential Statistics 389
Hypothesis Tests 391
Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test 395
Errors in Hypothesis Testing 396
Factors That Influence the Outcome of a Hypothesis Test 397
Supplementing Hypothesis Tests with Measures of Effect Size 399
15.4 Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 403
Three Data Structures 403
Scales of Measurement 404
Category 1: A Single Group of Participants with
One Score per Participant 404
Category 2: A Single Group of Participants with Two
Variables Measured for Each Participant 405
Category 3: Two or More Groups of Scores with Each
Score a Measurement of The Same Variable 407
15.5 Special Statistics for Research 412
The Spearman–Brown Formula 413
The Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 413
Cronbach’s Alpha 414
Cohen’s Kappa 414
Chapter Summary 417
Key Words 418
Exercises 418
Learning Check Answers 420
Chapter 1 6 Writing an APA-Style research report 421
Chapter learning objeCtives 421
Chapter overvieW 422
16.1 The Goal of a Research Report 422
16.2 General APA Guidelines for Writing Style
and Format 423
Some Elements of Writing Style 423
Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing 427
Manuscript Pages 427
16.3 The Elements of an APA-Style Research Report 428
Title Page 428
Abstract 430
Introduction 431
Method 434
Results 436
Discussion 436
References 439
Tables and Figures 441
Appendix 441
Submitting a Manuscript for Publication 441
Conference Presentations: Papers and Posters 444
16.4 Writing a Research Proposal 445
Why Write a Research Proposal? 445
How to Write a Research Proposal 446
Chapter Summary 447
Key Words 447
Exercises 447
Learning Check Answers 448
appendices
A Random Number Table and Instruction 449
B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 453
C Instructions for Using SPSS 481
D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 501
Glossary 511
References 525
Name Index 533
Subject Index 535