Biological Science, Seventh Edition
By Scott Freeman, Kim Quillin, Lizabeth Allison, Michael Black Greg Podgorski, Emily Taylor And Jeff Carmichael
Contents:
Biology: The study of life 1
1.1 What Does It Mean to Say that Something Is Alive? 2
1.2 Life Is Cellular and Replicates through Cell Division 2
All Organisms Are Made of Cells 2
Where Do Cells Come From? 3
Life Replicates through Cell Division 4
1.3 Life Processes Information and Requires Energy 4
The Central Dogma 5
Life Requires Energy 5
1.4 Life Evolves 6
What Is Evolution? 6
What Is Natural Selection? 6
1.5 The “Tree of Life” Depicts Evolutionary History 7
Using Genetic Sequences to Understand the Tree of Life 7
How Should We Name Branches on the Tree of Life? 9
1.6 Doing Biology 1 O
The Nature of Science 10
An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing: Why Do Giraffes Have
Long Necks? 10
An Introduction to Experimental Design: How Do Ants
Navigate? 12
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW 15
Mystery of the Newt 1 7
Doing Biology 18
I BioSkills 20 I
B.1 Using the Metric System and Significant Figures 21
Metric System Units and Conversions 21
Significant Figures 22
B.2 Reading and Making Graphs 23
Getting Started 24
Types of Graphs 25
Ge忧ing Practice 26
B.3 Interpreting Standard Error Bars and Using
Statistical Tests 26
Standard Error Bars 26
Using Statistical Tests 27
Interpreting Differen ces: P Values and Statistical
Significance 28
Evaluating Causation versus Correlation 28
B.4 Working with Probabilities 29
The “ Both-And” Rule 29
The “ Either-Or” Rule 29
B.5 Using Logarithms 29
B.6 Separating and Visualizing Molecules 30
Using Electrophoresis to Separate Molecules 30
Using Thin Layer Chromatography to Separate Molecules 32
Visualizing Molecules 32
- 7 Separating Cell Components by Centrifugation 34
B.8 Using Spectrophotometry 35
B.9 Using Microscopy 36
Light and Fluorescence Microscopy 36
Electron Microscopy 36
Studying Live Cells and Real-Time Processes 38
B.10 Using Molecular Biology Tools and Techniques 39
Making and Using cDNA Libraries 39
Amplifying DNA Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR) 40
Dideoxy Sequencing 41
Shotgun Sequencing 42
DNA Microarrays 43
B.11 Using Cell Culture and Model Organisms as Tools 44
Cell and Tissue Culture Methods 44
Model Organisms 45
B.12 Reading and Making Visual Models 48
Tips for Interpreting Models 48
Tips for Making Your Own Models 49
Concept Maps 49
B.13 Reading and Making Phylogenetic Trees 50
Anatomy of a Phylogenetic Tree 50
How to Read a Phylogenetic Tree 51
How to Draw a Phylogenetic Tree 51
B.14 Reading Chemical Structures 52
B.15 Translating Greek and Latin Roots in Biology 53
B.16 Reading and Citing the Primary Literature 53
What Is the Primary Literature? 53
Getting Started 53
Citing Sources 55
Getting Practice 55
B.17 Recognizing and Correcting Misconceptions 55
B.18 Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for Study Success 56
Categories of Human Cognition 56
Six Study Steps to Success 56
UNIT 1:
2 Water and Carbon: The
Chemical Basis of Life s8
2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks of
Chemical Evolution 59
Basic Atomic Structure 59
How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together? 61
Ionic Bonding, Ions, and 吐1e Electron-Sharing Continuum 62
Some Simple Molecules Formed from C, H, N, and O 63
The Geometry of Simple Molecules 63
Representing Molecules 64
2.2 Properties of Water and the Early Oceans 64
What Properties Are Correlated with Water’s Structure? 65
The Role of Water in Acid-Base Chemical Reactions 68
2.3 Chemical Reactions, Energy, and Chemical
Evolution 71
How Do Chemical Reactions Happen? 71
What Is Energy? 71
What Makes a Chemical Reaction Spontaneous? 72
2.4 Investigating Chemical Evolution 73
2.5 Life Is Carbon Based 7 4
Carbon Provides a Molecular Skeleton 75
Functional Groups Define 吐1e Chemical Behavior of Organic
Molecules 75
Small Organic Molecules Can Assemble into Large Molecules 75
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW 78
3 Protein Structure and
Function 80
3.1 Amino Acids and Their Polymerization 81
The Structure of Amino Acids 81
The Nature of Side Chains 81
How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins? 83
3.2 What Do Proteins Look Like? 84
Primary Structure 85
Secondary Structure 86
Tertiary Structure 87
Quaternary Structure 88
Folding and Function 89
Normal Folding Is Crucial to Function 90
Protein Shape Is Flexible 90
3.4 Protein Functions Are as Diverse as Protein
Structures 92
Why Are Enzymes Good Catalysts? 92
Did Life Arise from a Self-Replicating Enzyme? 93
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW 93
4 Nucleic Acids and
an RNA World gs
4.1 What Is a Nucleic Acid? 96
Could Chemical Evolution Result in the Production of
Nucleotides? 97
How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids? 97
4.2 DNA Structure and Function 98
What Is the Nature of DNA’s Secondary Structure? 99
The Tertiary Structure of DNA 101
DNA Functions as an Information-Containing Molecule 101
The DNA Double Helix Is a Stable Structure 102
4.3 RNA Structure and Function 103
Structurally, RNA Differs from DNA 103
RNA’s Versatility 104
RNA Can Function as a Catalytic Molecule 1 05
4.4 In Search of the First Life-Form 105
How Biologists Study the RNA World 106
An RNA World May Have Sparked the Evolution of Life 106
CHAPTER 4 REVIEW 107
An Introduction to
Carbohydrates 109
5.1 Sugars as Monomers 11 O
What Distinguishes One Monosaccharide from Another? 11 0
Can the Same Monosaccharide Exist in More Than One Form? 110
5.2 The Structure of Polysaccharides 112
Starch: A Storage Polysaccharide in Plants 113
Glycogen: A Highly Branched Storage Polysaccharide in
Animals 115
Cellulose: A Structural Polysaccharide in Plants 115
Chitin: A Structural Polysaccharide in Fungi and Animals 115
Peptidoglycan: A Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria 115
5.3 What Do Carbohydrates Do? 115
Carbohydrates Can Provide Structural Support 116
The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity 116
Carbohydrates and Energy Storage 117
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW 119
6 Lipids, Membranes, and the
First Cells 121
6.1 Lipid Structure and Function 122
How Does Bond Saturation Affect Hydrocarbon Structure? 122
A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells 123
How Membrane Lipids Interact with Water 124
6.2 Phospholipid Bilayers 125
Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System 126
Selective Permeability of Lipid Bilayers 127
How Does Lipid Structure Affect Membrane Permeability? 127
How Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of
Membranes? 129
6.3 How Substances Move across Lipid Bilayers:
Diffusion and Osmosis 129
Diffusion 129
Osmosis 130
Membranes and Chemical Evolution 131
6.4 Proteins Alter Membrane Structure and
Function 132
Development of the Fluid-Mosaic Model 132
Systems for Studying Membrane Proteins 1 34
Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion 134
Carrier Proteins Facilitate Diffusion 136
Pumps Perform Active Transport 137
Plasma Membranes Define the Intracellular Environment 139
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW 140
What’s So Toxic About Tetrodotoxin? 142
BIG P1cTuRe The Chemistry of Life 144
Inside the Cell 146
Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and Their
Functions 14 7
A Revolutionary New View 14 7
Prokaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List 14 7
Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their
Functions 150
The Benefits of Organelles 150
Eukaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List 151
7 .3 Putting the Parts into a Whole 158
Structure and Function at the Whole-Cell Level 158
The Dynamic Cell 159
7 .4 Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport 159
Structure and Function of the Nuclear Envelope 159
How Do Molecules Enter the Nucleus? 160
7 .5 Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System
Manufactures, Ships, and Recycles Cargo 161
Studying the Pathway through the Endomembrane
System 161
How Do Proteins Enter the Endomembrane System? 163
Moving from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus 164
What Happens Inside the Golgi Apparatus? 164
How Do Proteins Reach Their Proper Destinations? 164
Recycling Material in the Lysosome 165
7 .6 Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton 167
Actin Filaments 168
Intermediate Filaments 168
Microtubules 169
Flagella and Cilia: Moving the Entire Cell 171
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW 172
8 Energy and Enzymes:
An Introduction to
Metabolism 17s
8.1 What Happens to Energy in Chemical
Reactions? 176
Chemical Reactions Involve Energy Transformations 176
Temperature and Concentration Affect Reaction Rates 177
8.2 Nonspontaneous Reactions May Be Driven Using
Chemical Energy 179
Redox Reactions Transfer Energy via Electrons 179
ATP Transfers Energy via Phosphate Groups 181
8.3 How Enzymes Work 183
Enzymes Help Reactions Clear Two Hurdles 183
What Limits the Rate of Catalysis? 185
Do Enzymes Work Alone? 186
8.4 What Factors Affect Enzyme Function? 186
Enzymes Are Optimized for Particular Environments 187
Most Enzymes Are Regulated 187
8.5 Enzymes Can Work Together in Metabolic
Pathways 189
Metabolic Pathways Are Regulated 189
Metabolic Pathways Evolve 190
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW 191
9 Cellular Respiration and
Fermentation 193
9.1 An Overview of Cellular Respiration 194
What Happens When Glucose Is Oxidized? 194
Cellular Respiration Plays a Central Role in Metabolism 196
9.2 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate 197
Glycolysis Is a Sequence of 10 Reactions 197
How Is Glycolysis Regulated? 198
9.3 Processing Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA 200
9.4 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidizing Acetyl CoA
toC02 201
How Is the Citric Acid Cycle Regulated? 202
What Happens to the NADH and FADH2? 203
DETAILED CONTENTS Vii
9.5 Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis: Building a
Proton Gradient to Produce ATP 205
The Electron Transport Chain 205
The Discovery of ATP Synthase 206
The Chemiosmosis Hypothesis 207
Organisms Use a Diversity of Electron Acceptors 21 0
9.6 Fermentation 21 O
Many Different Fermentation Pathways Exist 210
Fermentation as an Alternative to Cellular
Respiration 211
CHAPTER 9 REVIEW 212
10 Photosynthesis 214
10.1 Photosynthesis Harnesses Sunlight to Make
Carbohydrate from C02 215
Photosynthesis: Two Linked Sets of Reactions 215
Photosynthesis Occurs in Chloroplasts 216
10.2 How Do Pigments Capture Light Energy? 217
Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light 218
When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an
Excited State 220
Photosystems 221
10.3 The Discovery of Photosystems I and II 222
How Does Photosystem II Work? 222
How Does Photosystem I Work? 224
The Z Scheme: Photosystems II and I Work Together 225
10.4 How Do Cells Capture Carbon Dioxide? 227
The Calvin Cycle Fixes Carbon 228
The Discovery of Rubisco 229
Mechanisms for Increasing C02 Concentration 230
10.5 Captured Carbon Dioxide Is Reduced to Make
Sugar 232
The Calvin Cycle Is a Three-Step Process 232
How Is Photosynthesis Regulated? 233
What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by
Photosynthesis? 233
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW 233
11 Cell-Cell Interactions 238
11.1 The Cell Surface 239
The Structure and Function of an Extracellular Layer 239
The Cell Wall in Plants 239
The Extracellular Matrix in Animals 240
11.2 How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and
Communicate? 242
Cell-Cell Attachments in Multicellular Organisms 242
Cells Communicate via Cell-Cell Gaps 246
11.3 How Do Distant Cells Communicate? 247
Cell-Cell Signaling in Multicellular Organisms 247
Signal Reception 248
Signal Processing 248
Signal Response 252
Signal Deactivation 252
Crosstalk: Synthesizing Input from Many Signals 253
11.4 Signaling between Unicellular Organisms 254
CHAPTER 11 REVIEW 255
12 The Cell Cycle 257
12.1 How Do Cells Replicate? 258
What Is a Chromosome? 258
Cells Alternate between M Phase and Interphase 259
The Discovery of S Phase 259
The Discovery of the Gap Phases 259
The Cell Cycle 260
12.2 What Happens during M Phase? 261
Events in Mitosis 262
How Do Chromosomes Move during Ana phase? 265
Cytokinesis Results in Two Daughter Cells 266
Bacterial Cell Replication 267
12.3 Control of the Cell Cycle 267
The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules 267
Cell-Cycle Checkpoints Can Arrest the Cell Cycle 269
12.4 Cancer: Out-oιControl Cell Division 271
Properties of Cancer Cells 271
Cancer Involves Loss of Cell-Cycle Control 272
CHAPTER 12 REVIEW 274
CASE STUDY How Did the Newt Become So Toxic? 276
UNIT 3
13 Meiosis 27a
13.1 HowDoesMeiosisOccur? 279
Chromosomes Come in Distinct Sizes and Shapes 279
The Concept of Ploidy 280
An Overview of Meiosis 280
The Phases of Meiosis I 283
The Phases of Meiosis II 284
Mitosis versus Meiosis 284
13.2 Meiosis Promotes Genetic Variation 286
Independent Assortment 287
Crossing Over 288
How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation? 288
13.3 What Happens When Things Go Wrong in
Meiosis? 288
How Do Mistakes Occur? 289
Why Do Mistakes Occur? 290
13.4 What Are the Benefits of Meiosis? 290
The Paradox of Sex 290
The Purifying Selection Hypothesis 291
The Changing-Environment Hypothesis 291
CHAPTER 13 REVIEW 293
14 Mendel and the Gene
14.1 Mendel’s Experimental System 296
What Questions Was Mendel Trying to Answer? 296
The Garden Pea Served as the First Model Organism in
Genetics 296
14.2 Mendel’s Experiments with a Single Trait 298
The Monohybrid Cross 298
Particulate Inheritance 300
14.3 Mendel’s Experiments with Two Traits 303
The Dihybrid Cross 303
Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions 305
14.4 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance 306
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Principles 306
Testing the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance 306
14.5 Extending Mendel’s Rules 308
Linkage: What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same
Chromosome? 309
Quantitative Methods 14.1 Linkage and Genetic Mapping 311
How Many Alleles Can a Gene Have? 312
Are Alleles Always Dominant or Recessive? 312
Does Each Gene AffectJust One Trait? 312
Is a Particular Trait Determined by One Gene? 313
Are Traits Determined Exclusively by Genes? 314
Can Mendel’s Principles Explain Traits That Don’t Fall into
Distinct Categories? 314
14.6 Applying Mendel’s Rules to Human Inheritance 316
Iden ti行ing Alleles as Recessive or Dominant 317
Iden ti句ring Traits as Autosomal or Sex-Linked 317
CHAPTER 14 REVIEW 319
15 DNA and the Gene: Synthesis
and Repair 322
15.1 What Are Genes Made Of? 323
The Hershey-Chase Experiment 323
The Structure of DNA 324
15.2 Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis 326
Three Alternative Hypotheses 326
The Meselson-Stahl Experiment 326
15.3 A Model for DNA Synthesis 328
Where Does Replication Start? 328
How Is the Helix Opened and Stabilized? 329
How Is the Leading Strand Synthesized? 330
How Is the Lagging Strand Synthesized? 330
New Discoveries in DNA Synthesis 332
15.4 Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes 333
The End-Replication Problem 333
Telomerase Solves 甘1e End-Replication Problem 333
Effect of Telomere Length on Cell Division and Aging 333
15.5 Repairing Mistakes and DNA Damage 335
Correcting Mistakes in DNA Synthesis 335
Repairing Damaged DNA 337
A DNA Repair Defect in Humans 337
CHAPTER 15 REVIEW 338
16 How Genes Work 341
16.1 What Do Genes Do? 342
The One-Gene, One-Enzyme Hypothesis 342
An Experimental Test of the Hypothesis 342
16.2 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 343
The Genetic Code Hypothesis 344
RNA as 吐1e Intermediary between Genes and Proteins 344
Dissecting the Central Dogma 344
16.3 The Genetic Code 346
How Long Isa “ Word” in the Genetic Code? 346
How Did Researchers Crack the Code? 34 7
16.4 What Are the Types and Consequences of
Mutation? 349
Point Mutations 349
Chromosome Mutations 350
CHAPTER 16 REVIEW 352
17 Transcription, RNA
Processing, and
Translation 354
17.1 An Overview of Transcription 355
Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria? 355
Elongation and Termination in Bacteria 356
Transcription in Eukaryotes 357
17 .2 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes 358
The Startling Discovery of Split Eukaryotic Genes 358
RNA Splicing 359
Adding Caps and Tails to Transcripts 360
1 7 .3 An Introduction to Translation 360
Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis 360
An Overview of Translation 361
How Does mRNA Speci行Amino Acids? 362
1 7 .4 The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA 362
What Is the Structure of tRNAs? 363
How Are Amino Acids Attached to tRNAs? 364
How Many Types of tRNAs Are There? 364
1 7 .5 Ribosome Structure and Function in
Translation 365
Initiating Translation 366
Elongation: Extending the Polypeptide 367
Terminating Translation 368
Polypeptides Are Modified after Translation 368
CHAPTER 17 REVIEW 370
18 Control of Gene Expression in
Bacteria 373
18.1 An Overview of Gene Regulation and Information
Flow 374
Mechanisms of Regulation 37 4
Metabolizing Lactose-A Model System 375
DETAILED CONTENTS ix
18.2 Negative and Positive Control of
Transcription 376
A Gene Needed to Regulate Lactose Metabolism 376
Negative Control of Lactose Utilization Genes 378
The Operon Model 378
Positive Control of Lactose Utilization Genes 379
Why Has the lac Operon Model Been So Important
Scientifically? 380
The trp Operon: A Twist on Negative Control 381
18.3 Global Gene Regulation 382
CHAPTER 18 REVIEW 383
19 Control of Gene
Expression in Eukaryotes
19.1 Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes一
An Overview 386
19.2 Chromatin Remodeling 387
Chromatin Structure 387
Chromatin Structure Is Altered in Active Genes 388
How Is Chromatin Altered? 389
DNA and Chromatin Modifications Vary and Can be
Inherited 389
19.3 Initiating Transcription 391
Promoter-Proximal Elements Are Regulato巧r Sequences Near
世1e Core Promoter 391
Enhancers Are Regulatory Sequences Far from 甘1e Core
Promoter 392
The Role of Transcription Factors in Differential Gene
Expression 392
How Do Transcription Factors Recognize Specific DNA
Sequences? 393
A Model for Transcription Initiation 393
19.4 Post-Transcriptional Control 395
Many Primary Transcripts Are Alternatively Spliced 396
mRNA Stability and Translation Are Important Mechanisms of
Post-Transcriptional Control 396
Post-Translational Control 398
19.5 Linking Cancer to Defects in Gene Regulation 398
The Genetic Basis of Uncontrolled Cell Growth 399
The p53 Tumor Suppressor 399
19.6 A Comparison of Gene Expression in Bacteria and
Eukaryotes 400
CHAPTER 19 REVIEW 401
Genetic Information 404
20 The Molecular Revolution:
Biotechnology, Genomics,
and New Frontiers 406
20.1 Recombinant DNA Technology 407
Using Plasmids in Cloning 407
Using Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligase to Cut and
Paste DNA 407
Transformation: Introducing Recombinant Plasmids into
Bacterial Cells 408
Complementary DNA ( cDNA) 409
Biotechnology in Agriculture 409
X DETAILED CONTENTS
20.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction 41 O
Requirements of PCR 410
PCR In Action: DNA Fingerprinting 410
20.3 Analyzing Genomes 411
Whole-Genome Sequencing 412
Analyzing Genomes Through Bioinformatics 412
Genome-Wide Association Studies-An Alternative Approach to
Identifying Genes 413
20.4 Insights into Genomes 414
Prokaryotic Genomes 415
Eukaryotic Genomes 416
Insights from the Human Genome Project 418
20.5 Genome Editing 419
The Biology of the CRISPR-Cas System 419
Using 吐1e CRISPR-Cas System for Genome Editing 420
What’s Been Achieved With CRISPR-Cas Genome Editing? 420
20.6 Gene Therapy 422
- 7 New Frontiers: Functional Genomics, Proteomics,
Systems and Synthetic Biology 423
Functional Genomics Seeks to Understand How Genes and
Genomes Work 423
Proteomics Seeks to Identi市the Entire Set of Proteins Expressed
in a Cell 424
Systems and Synthetic Biology-New Approaches to
Understanding Life 424
CHAPTER 20 REVIEW 425
21 Genes, Development,
and Evolution 428
21.1 Genetic Equivalence and Differential Gene
Expression in Development 429
Evidence that Differentiated Plant Cells Are Genetically
Equivalent 429
Evidence that Differentiated Animal Cells Are Genetically
Equivalent 429
How Does Differential Gene Expression Occur? 430
21.2 Cells Are Determined Before They Differentiate 431
Commitment and Determination 431
Master Regulators of Differentiation and Development 431
Stem Cells and Stem Cell Therapy 432
21.3 Shared Developmental Processes 433
Cell Division 433
Cell-Cell Interactions 434
Cell Differentiation 434
Cell Movement and Changes in Shape 435
Programmed Cell Death 436
21.4 Establishing the Body Plan 437
Morphogens Set Up the Body Axes in Drosophila 437
Genetic Regulatory Cascades Provide Increasingly Specific
Positional Information 439
Regulatory Genes and Signaling Molecules Are Evolutionarily
Conserved 440
One Regulator Can Be Used in Different Ways 442
21.5 Changes in Developmental Gene Expression Drive
Evolutionary Change 442
CHAPTER 21 REVIEW 44
I How Can Mutations Save a Snake? 446
UNIT 4
22 Evolution by Natural
Selection 448
22.1 The Rise of Evolutionary Thought 449
Plato and Typological Thinking 449
Aristotle and the Scale of Nature 449
Lamarck and the Idea of Evolution as Change through Time 450
Darwin and Wallace and Evolution by Natural Selection 450
22.2 The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed, and
Are They Related? 450
Evidence for Change through Time 450
Evidence of Descent from a Common Ancestor 453
Evolution’s “ Internal Consistency”-The Importance of
Independent Data Sets 456
22.3 The Process of Evolution: How Does Natural
Selection Work? 457
Darwin’s Inspiration 458
Darwin’s Four Postulates 458
Biological Definitions of Fitness, Adaptation, and Selection 459
22.4 Evolution in Action: Measuring Natural Selection in
Populations Today 459
Case Study 1: How Did Mycobαcterium tuberculosis Become
Resistant to Antibiotics? 459
Case Study 2: Why Do Beak Sizes and Shapes Vary in Galapagos
Finches? 461
22.5 Debunking Common Misconceptions about Natural
Selection and Evolution 463
Natural Selection Does Not Change Individuals 463
Natural Selection Is Not Goal Directed 465
Natural Selection Does Not Lead to Perfection 465
CHAPTER 22 REVIEW 467
23 Evolutionary Processes 469
23.1 Null Hypothesis: The Hardy-Weinberg
Principle 4 70
The Gene Pool Concept 4 70
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle Makes Important
Assumptions 4 71
Quantitative Methods 23.1 Deriving the Hardy-Weinberg
Principle 4 72
Case Study: Are MN Blood”Type Alleles in Humans in
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? 473
23.2 Nonrandom Mating 474
How Does Inbreeding Affect Allele Frequencies and Genotype
Frequencies? 4 7 4
How Does Inbreeding Influence Evolution? 4 75
Nonrandom Mating via Sexual Selec世on 475
23.3 Natural Selection 475
How Does Selection Affect Genetic Variation? 4 76
Sexual Selection 478
23.4 Genetic Drift 482
Simulation Studies of Genetic Drift 482
Experimental Studies of Genetic Drift 484
What Causes Genetic Drift in Natural Populations? 484
Take-Home Messages 485
23.5 Gene Flow 486
Measuring Gene Flow between Populations 486
Gene Flow Is Random with Respect to Fitness 487
23.6 Mutation 487
Mutation as an Evolutionary Process 488
Experimental Studies of Mutation 488
Studies of Mutation in Natural Populations 489
Take-Home Messages 489
CHAPTER 23 REVIEW 490
2 4 Speciation 493
24.1 How Are Species Defined and Identified? 494
The Biological Species Concept 495
The Morphospecies Concept 495
The Phylogenetic Species Concept 496
Species Definitions in Action: How Many Species of Elephants
Are There? 497
24.2 Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry 498
Allopatric Speciation by Dispersal 498
Allopatric Speciation by Vicariance 499
24.3 Isolation and Divergence in Sympatry 500
Sympa甘ic Speciation by Disruptive Selection 500
Sympa甘ic Speciation by Polyploidization 502
24.4 What Happens When Isolated Populations Come into
Contact? 504
Fusion or Extinction 504
Reinforcement of Divergence 505
Hybrid Zone Formation 505
New Species through Hybridization 506
Take-Home Messages 507
CHAPTER 24 REVIEW 508
25 Phylogenies and the History
of Life 510
25.1 Tools for Studying Life’s History: Phylogenetic
Trees 511
Fish Fraud Case Study: How Do Biologists Interpret Phylogenetic
Trees? 511
How Do Biologists Estimate Phylogenies? 512
How Can Biologists Use Phylogenetic Trees to Study 吐1e History
of Life? 514
Case Study: Where Do Whales Belong on the Tree of Life? 515
25.2 Tools for Studying Life’s History: The Fossil
Record 517
Biologists Study Many Types of Fossils 517
What Are the Opportunities and Limitations of the Fossil
Record? 518
How Are Fossils Used to Estimate Life’s Time Line? 519
Investigating the Human Microbiome 540
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies 541
26.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of
Bacteria and Archaea? 541
Genetic Variation through Gene Transfer 541
Morphological Diversity 543
Metabolic Diversity 544
Ecological Diversity and Global Impacts 54 7
26.4 Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea 550
Bacteria 550
Archaea 550
25.3 Large-Scale Pattern in Life’s History: Adaptive
Radiation 521
Why Do Adaptive Radiations Occur? 522
The Cambrian Explosion 522
25.4 Large-Scale Pattern in Life’s History: Mass
Extinction 525
How Do Mass Extinctions Differ 仕om Background
Extinctions? 525
The End-Permian Extinction 525
The End-Cretaceous Extinction 526
The Sixth Mass Extinction 527
CHAPTER 26 REVIEW 553
26.1 Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
Biological Impact 535
Some Prokaryotes Thrive in Extreme Environments 536
Medical Importance 536
Role in Bioremediation 538
27 Diversification of Eukaryotes 555
27.1 Why Do Biologists Study Protists? 556
Impacts on Human Health and Welfare 556
Ecological Importance of Protists 558
27 .2 How Do Biologists Study Protists? 559
Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure 560
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies 560
Discovering New Lineages via Direct Sequencing 561
27 .3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of
Protists? 562
What Morphological Innovations Evolved in Protists? 562
How Do Protists Obtain Food? 566
How Do Protists Move? 567
How Do Protists Reproduce? 568
Key Lineages of Eukaryotes 571
Amoebozoa 571
Opisthokonta 571
Excavata 571
Plantae 572
Rhizaria 573
Alveolata 573
CHAPTER 25 REVIEW 527
Are Garter Snakes and Newts Engaged in an
Arms Race? 530
Jufi Evolution 532
2 6 Bacteria and Archaea 27.4
26.2 How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea? 539
Using Enrichment Cultures 539
Using Metagenomics 540
Stramenopila (Heterokonta) 57 4
CHAPTER 27 REVIEW 575
2 8 Green Algae and Land
Plants 577
28.1 Why Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land
Plants? 578
Plants Provide Ecosystem Services 578
Plants Provide Humans with Food, Fuel, Fiber, Building
Materials, and Medicines 579
28.2 How Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land
Plants? 580
Analyzing Morphological Traits 580
Using the Fossil Record 582
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies 583
28.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Land
Plants? 584
The Transition to Land I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry
Conditions with Intense Sunlight? 584
Mapping Evolutionary Changes on the Phylogenetic Tree 587
The Transition to Land II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry
Conditions? 587
The Angiosperm Radiation 596
28.4 Key Lineages of Green Algae and Land Plants 597
Green Algae 598
Nonvascular Plants 598
Seedless Vascular Plants 598
Seed Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms 598
CHAPTER 28 REVIEW 604
29 Fungi 606
29.1 Why Do Biologists Study Fungi? 607
Fungi Have Important Economic and Ecological
Impacts 607
Mycorrhizal Fungi Provide Nutrients for Land Plants 608
Saprophytic Fungi Accelerate the Carbon Cycle
On Land 609
29.2 How Do Biologists Study Fungi? 609
Analyzing Morphological Traits 610
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies 612
29.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of
Fungi? 614
Fungi Often Participate in Symbioses 615
What Adaptations Make Fungi Such Effective
Decomposers? 618
Variation in Reproduction 619
Four Major Types of Life Cycles 621
29.4 Key Lineages of Fungi 624
Microsporidia 624
Chytrids 625
Zygomycetes 625
Glomeromycota 626
Basidiomycota 626
Ascomycota 626
CHAPTER 29 REVIEW 626
30 An Introduction to
Animals 629
30.1 What ls an Animal? 630
30.2 What Key Innovations Occurred during the Origin of
Animal Phyla? 631
Origin of Multicellularity 632
Origin of Embryonic Tissue Layers and Muscle 634
Origin of Bilateral Symme甘y, Cephalization, and the Nervous
System 635
Origin of the Gut and Coelom 637
Origin of Protostomes and Deuterostomes 638
Origin of Segmentation 639
30.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification within
Animal Phyla? 639
Sensory Organs 640
Feeding 641
Movement 642
Reproduction 644
Life Cycles 645
30.4 Key Lineages of Animals: Non-Bilaterian
Groups 646
Porifera (Sponges) 646
Ctenophora (Comb Jellies) 647
Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids) 647
CHAPTER 30 REVIEW 648
31 Protostome Animals 6so
31.1 What Is a Protostome? 651
The Water-to-Land Transition 652
Compartmentalized and Flexible Body Pl缸lS 653
31.2 What Is a Lophotrochozoan? 654
What Is a Flatworm? 655
What Is a Segmented Worm? 657
What Is a Mollusk? 658
31.3 What Is an Ecdysozoan? 661
What Is a Roundworm? 662
What Are Water Bears and Velvet Worms? 663
What Is an Arthropod? 663
Arthropod Diversity 665
Arthropod Metamorphosis 668
Take-Home Messages 669
CHAPTER 31 REVIEW 670
32 Deuterostome Animals
32.1 What Is a Deuterostome? 673
32.2 What Is an Echinoderm? 67 4
The Echinoderm Body Plan 67 4
Echinoderms Are Important Consumers 67 4
32.3 What Is a Chordate? 676
The Cephalochordates 676
The Urochordates 677
The Vertebrates 678
32.4 What Is a Vertebrate? 678
32.5 What Key Innovations Occurred during the
Evolution ofVertebrates? 679
Urochordates: Sister Group to Vertebrates 679
First Vertebrates: Origin of the Cranium and Vertebrae 679
Gnathostomes: Origin of the Vertebrate Jaw 681
Origin of the Bony Endoskeleton 683
Origin of the Lungs 683
Tetra pods: Origin of the Limb 684
Amniotes: Origin of the Amniotic Egg 685
Mammals: Origin of Lactation and Fur 686
Reptiles: Origin of Scales and Feathers Made of Keratin 687
Parental Care 689
Take-Home Messages 690
32.6 The Primates and Hominins 690
The Primates 690
Fossil Humans 692
The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis 695
Have Humans Stopped Evolving? 696
CHAPTER 32 REVIEW 697
33 Viruses 699
33.1 Why Do Biologists Study Viruses? 700
Viruses Shape the Evolution of Organisms 700
Viruses Cause Disease 700
Current Viral Pandemics in Humans: AIDS 702
33.2 How Do Biologists Study Viruses? 703
Analyzing Morphological Traits 703
Analyzing the Genetic Material 704
Analyzing the Phases of Replicative Growth 705
Analyzing How Viruses Can Coexist with Host Cells 711
33.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of
Viruses? 712
Where Did Viruses Come From? 712
Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases 712
33.4 Key Lineages of Viruses 714
CHAPTER 33 REVIEW 718
Are Newts Adapted to Kill Humans? 720
Lfi Dive啕
34 Plant Form and Function 724
34.1 Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations 725
The Importance of Surface Area to Volume
Relationships 726、
The Root System 726
The Shoot System 728
The Leaf 730
34.2 Plant Cells and Tissue Systems 733
The Dermal Tissue System 734
The Ground Tissue System 734
The Vascular Tissue System 736
34.3 Primary Growth Extends the Plant Body 738
How Do Apical Meristems Produce the Primary Plant
Body? 738
Howls 吐1e Primary Root System Organized? 7 40
Howls 吐1e Primary Shoot System Organized? 7 41
34.4 Secondary Growth Widens Shoots and Roots 7 41
What ls a Cambium? 742
How Does a Cambium Initiate Secondary Growth? 7 43
What Do Vascular Cambia Produce? 7 43
What Do Cork Cambia Produce? 7 44
The Structure of Tree Trunks 7 44
CHAPTER 34 REVIEW 745
3 5 Water and Sugar Transpo叫in
Plants 747
35.1 Water Potential and Water Movement 7 48
What Is Water Potential? 7 48
What Factors Affect Water Potential? 7 48
Working with Water Potentials 7 49
Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere 750
35.2 How Does Water Move from Roots to Shoots? 752
Movement of Water and Solutes into the Root 752
Water Movement via Root Pressure 754
Water Movement via Capillary Action 754
The Cohesion-Tension Theory 755
Plant Features That Reduce Water Loss through
Transpiration 757
35.3 Translocation of Sugars 758
Tracing Connections between Sources and Sinks 759
The Anatomy of Phloem 760
The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis 760
Phloem Loading 762
Phloem Unloading 764
CHAPTER 35 REVIEW 765
36 Plant Nutrition 767
36.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants 768
Which Nutrients Are Essential? 768
What Happens When Key Nutrients Are in Short Supply? 770
36.2 Soil: A Dynamic Mixture of Living and Nonliving
Components 771
The Importance of Soil Conservation 772
What Factors Affect Nu甘ientAvailability? 773
36.3 Nutrient Uptake 77 4
36.4 Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake 77 4
Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion 776
Nitrogen Fixation 778
The Role of Symbiotic Bacteria 779
What Is 吐1e Relationship between Plants and Nitrogen-Fixing
Bacteria? 779
36.5 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants 781
Parasitic Plants 781
Epiphy世c Plants 781
Carnivorous Plants 781
CHAPTER 36 REVIEW 783
37 Plant Sensory Systems,
Signals, and Responses 785
37 .1 Information Processing in Plants 786
How Do Cells Receive and Process an External Signal? 786
How Do Cells Respond to Cell- Cell Signals? 786
37 .2 Blue Light: The Phototropic Response 788
Photo opins as Blue-Light Receptors 788
Auxin as the Phototropic Hormone 789
37 .3 Red and Far-Red Light: Germination, Stem
Elongation, and Flowering 792
The Red/Far-Red “Switch” 792
Phytochrome Is a Red/Far-Red Receptor 792
Signals That Promote Flowering 793
37 .4 Gravity: The Gravitropic Response 795
The Statolith Hypothesis 795
Auxin as the Gravitropic Signal 796
37 .5 How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch? 797
Changes in Growth Patterns 797
Movement Responses 797
37 .6 Youth, Maturity, and Aging: The Growth
Responses 798
Auxin and Apical Dominance 798
Cytokinins and Cell Division 799
Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy 799
Brassinosteroids and Body Size 802
Ethylene and Senescence 803
An Overview of Plant Growth Regulators 804
- 7 Pathogens and Herbivores: The Defense
Responses 806
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Pathogens? 806
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Herbivore Attack? 808
CHAPTER 37 REVIEW 810
38 Flowering Plant Reproduction
and Development 813
38.1 An Introduction to Flowering Plant
Reproduction 814
Asexual Reproduction 814
Sexual Reproduction and the Flowering Plant Life Cycle 815
38.2 Reproductive Structures 816
The General Structure of the Flower 816
How Are Female Gametophytes Produced? 818
How Are Male Gametophytes Produced? 819
38.3 Pollination and Fertilization 820
Pollination 820
Fertilization 822
38.4 Seeds and Fruits 823
Seed Maturation 823
Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal 824
Seed Dormancy 826
Seed Germination 826
38.5 Embryogenesis and Vegetative Development 827
Embryogenesis 828
Meristem Formation 829
Which Genes Determine Body Axes in 吐1e Plant Embryo? 829
Which Genes Determine Leaf Structure and Shape? 830
38.6 Reproductive Development 831
The Floral Meristem and the Flower 831
UNIT 7
The Genetic Control of Flower Structures 832
CHAPTER 38 REVIEW 833
Can Plant Compounds Perform a Role Similar to
Tetrodotoxin? 836
ufi Plant and Animal Form and Fu时on 838
39 Animal Form and Function 创O
39.1 Form, Function, and Adaptation 841
The Role of Fitness Trade-Offs 841
Adaptation and Acclimatization 843
39.2 Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems: How Does
Structure Correlate with Function? 843
Structure-Function Relationships at the Molecular and Cellular
Levels 844
Tissues Are Groups of Cells That Function as a Unit 844
Organs and Organ Systems 84 7
39.3 How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology? 848
Surface Area to Volume Relationships: Theory 848
Surface Area to Volume Relationships: Data 849
Adaptations That Increase Surface Area 850
39.4 Homeostasis 851
Homeostasis: General Principles 851
The Role of Regulation and Feedback 851
39.5 Thermoregulation: A Closer Look 853
Mechanisms of Heat Exchange 853
Thermoregulatory Strategies 853
Comparing Endothermy and Ectothermy 854
Countercurrent Heat Exchangers 855
CHAPTER 39 REVIEW 856
40 Water and Electrol叭e
Balance in Animals 858
40.1 Osmoregulation and Excretion 859
What Is Osmotic Stress? 859
Osmotic Stress in Seawater, in Fresh Water, and on Land 859
How Do Electrolytes and Water Move across Cell
Membranes? 860
How Do Different Forms of Nitrogenous Waste Impact Water
Balance? 861
40.2 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Marine and
Freshwater Fishes 862
Osmoconformation versus Osmoregulation in Marine Fishes 862
How Do Sharks Excrete Salt? 862
How Do Freshwater Fishes Osmoregulate? 864
DETAILED CONTENTS XV
40.3 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects 864
How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface? 865
How Do Insects Regulate the Amount of Water and Electrolytes
They Excrete? 865
40.4 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial
Vertebrates 866
Structure of the Mammalian Kidney 866
Function of the Mammalian Kidney: An Overview 867
Filtration: The Renal Corpuscle 868
Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule 868
Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle 870
Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule
and Collecting Duct 872
Urine Formation in Nonmammalian Vertebrates 873
CHAPTER 40 REVIEW 875
41 Animal Nutrition 877
41.1 Nutritional Requirements 878
41.2 Capturing Food: The Structure and Function of
Mouthparts 880
Mouthparts as Adaptations 880
A Case Study: The Cichlid Throat Jaw 880
41.3 The Structure and Function of Animal Digestive
Tracts 881
An Introduction to the Digestive Tract 881
An Overview of Digestive Processes 882
The Mouth and Esophagus: Digestion and Ingestion 883
The Stomach: Digestion 884
The Small Intestine: Digestion and Absorption 886
The Large Intestine: Absorption and Elimination 891
41.4 Nutritional Homeostasis-Glucose as a
Case Study 891
Insulin’s Role in Glucose Homeostasis 891
Diabetes Mellitus Has Two Forms 892
The Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Epidemic 892
CHAPTER 41 REVIEW 893
42 Gas Exchange and
Circulation 896
42.1 The Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 897
42.2 Air and Water as Respiratory Media 897
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave In Air? 898
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water? 898
42.3 Organs of Gas Exchange 899
Physical Parameters: The Law of Diffusion 899
How Do Gills Work? 900
How Do Insect Tracheae Work? 901
How Do Vertebrate Lungs Work? 903
Homeostatic Control of Ventilation 904
42.4 How Are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transported
in Blood? 905
Structure and Function of Hemoglobin 905
C02 Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH 908
42.5 Circulation 908
What Is an Open Circulatory System? 909
What Is a Closed Circulatory System? 909
How Does the Heart Work? 912
Patterns in Blood Pressure and Blood Flow 916
CHAPTER 42 REVIEW 918
43 Animal Nervous Systems
43.1 Principles of Electrical Signaling 922
Types of Neurons 922
The Anatomy of a Neuron 923
An Introduction to Membrane Potentials 923
How Is the Resting Potential Maintained? 924
Using Electrodes to Measure Membrane
Potentials 925
What Is an Action Potential? 925
43.2 Dissecting the Action Potential 926
Distinct Ion Currents Are Responsible for Depolarization
and Repolarization 926
How Do Voltage-Gated Channels Work? 926
How Is the Action Potential Propagated? 928
43.3 The Synapse 930
Synapse Structure and Neuro甘ansmitter
Release 930
What Do Neurotransmitters Do? 931
Postsynaptic Potentials 932
43.4 The Vertebrate Nervous System 934
What Does 甘1e Peripheral Nervous System Do? 934
Functional Anatomy of the CNS 934
How Do Learning and Memory Work? 938
CHAPTER 43 REVIEW 941
44 Animal Sensory Systems 944
44.1 How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information
to the Brain? 945
Sensory Transduction 945
Transmitting Information to the Brain 946
44.2 Mechanoreception: Sensing Pressure Changes 946
How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other
Forms of Pressure? 94 7
The Mammalian Ear: Hearing 948
The Mammalian Ear: Equilibrium 950
Sensing Pressure Changes in Water 950
44.3 Photoreception: Sensing Light 952
The Insect Eye 952
The Vertebrate Eye 952
44.4 Chemoreception: Sensing Chemicals 956
Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth 956
Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in 甘1eAir 957
44.5 Other Sensory Systems 959
Thermoreception: Sensing Temperature 959
Electroreception: Sensing Elec甘ic Fields 960
Magnetoreception: Sensing Magnetic Fields 960
CHAPTER 44 REVIEW 961
45 Animal Movement
45.1 How Do Muscles Contract? 965
Early Muscle Experiments 965
The Sliding-Filament Model 965
How Do Actin and Myosin Interact? 966
How Do Neurons Initiate Contraction? 968
45.2 Classes of Muscle Tissue 969
Smooth Muscle 969
Cardiac Muscle 969
Skeletal Muscle 970
45.3 Skeletal Systems 972
Hydrostatic Skeletons (Hydrostats) 973
Endoskeletons 97 4
Exoskeletons 975
45.4 Locomotion 976
How Do Biologists Study Locomotion? 976
Size Matters 979
CHAPTER 45 REVIEW 981
46 Chemical Signals in
Animals 983
46.1 Cell-to-Cell Signaling: An Overview 984
Major Categories of Chemical Signals 984
Hormone Signaling Pathways 985
What Structures Make Up the Endocrine System? 987
How Do Researchers Identify a Hormone? 987
A Breakthrough in Measuring Hormone Levels 988
46.2 How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells? 988
Hormone Concentrations Are Small, but Their Effects Are
Large 988
The Three Chemical Classes of Hormones 988
Steroid Hormones Bind to Intracellular Receptors 989
Polypeptide Hormones Bind to Receptors on the Plasma
Membrane 990
Why Do Different Target Cells Respond in Different Ways? 992
46.3 What Do Hormones Do? 992
How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes? 992
How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Stressors? 995
How Are Hormones Involved in Homeostasis? 996
46.4 How Is the Production of Hormones Re职1lated? 997
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 998
Control of Epinephrine by Sympathetic Nerves 1000
CHAPTER 46 REVIEW 1000
4 7 Animal Reproduction and Development 1003
4 7 .1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction 1004
How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur? 1 004
Switching Reproductive Modes in Dαphnia: A Case History 1004
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis 1005
4 7 .2 Reproductive Structures and Their Functions 1008
The Male Reproductive System 1009
The Female Reproductive System 1009
4 7 .3 Fertilization and Egg Development 1011
External Fertilization 1011
Internal Fertilization 1012
The Cell Biology of Fertilization 1013
Why Do Some Females Lay Eggs, while Others Give Birth
to Live Offspring? 1 014
4 7 .4 Embryonic Development 1016
Cleavage 1016
Gastrulation 1017
Organogenesis 1 018
4 7 .5 The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian
Reproduction 1021
Which Hormones Control Puberty? 1021
Which Hormones Control 吐1e Menstrual Cycle in
Humans? 1022
4 7 .6 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals 1025
Gestation and Development in Marsupials 1025
Major Events during Human Pregnancy 1025
How Does the Mother Exchange Materials with the Fetus? 1 026
Birth 1027
CHAPTER 47 REVIEW 1028
DETAILED CONTENTS xvii
48 The Immune System
Animals 1030
48.1 Innate Immunity: First Response 1031
Barriers to Entry 1031
The Innate Immune Response 1 032
48.2 Adaptive Immunity: Recognition 1035
An Introduction to Lymphocytes 1035
Lymphocytes Recognize a Diverse Array of Antigens
How Does the Immune System Distinguish Self from
Nonself? 1039
48.3 Adaptive Immunity: Activation 1040
The Clonal Selection Theory 1040
T” Cell Activation 1 040
B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion 1 042
48.4 Adaptive Immunity: Response and Memory 1044
How Are Extracellular Pathogens Eliminated?
The Humoral Response 1044
How Areintrαcellular Pathogens Eliminated?
The Cell-Mediated Response 1044
Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and
Organs? 1 046
Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory 1046
48.5 What Happens When the Immune System Doesn’t
Work Correctly? 1048
UNIT 8
Allergies 1 048
Autoimmune Diseases 1048
Immunodeficiency Diseases 1 049
CHAPTER 48 REVIEW 1049
Do Garter Snakes Resistant toπX Experience
Trade-0仔s? 1052
49 An Introduction to
Ecology 1os4
49.1 Levels of Ecological Study 1055
Organismal Ecology 1 055
XVIII DETAILED CONTENTS
49.2 Population Ecology 1056
Comm uni句Ecology 1056
Ecosystem Ecology 1 056
Global Ecology 1056
Conservation Biology Applies All Levels of Ecological
Study 1056
What Determines the Distribution and Abundance
of Organisms? 1057
Present Abiotic Factors 1057
Present Biotic Factors 1 058
Past Abiotic Factors 1 059
Past Biotic Factors 1 059
Looking to the Future 1 060
49.3 Climate Patterns 1061
Why Are the Tropics Warm and the Poles Cold? 1061
Why Are the Tropics Wet? 1061
What Causes Seasonality in Weather? 1062
What Regional Effects Do Mountains and Oceans Have
on Climate? 1063
Do Biotic Factors Affect Climate? 1064
49.4 Types of Terrestrial Biomes 1064
What Are 吐1e Major Natural Terrestrial Biomes? 1 064
Human Land Use Is Displacing Natural Biomes 1067
How Is Global Climate Change Affecting Terres甘ial Biomes? 1 067
49.5 Types of Aquatic Biomes 1069
Salinity 1 069
Water Depth and Sunlight Availability 1069
Water Flow 1070
Nutrient Availability 1071
How Are Aquatic Biomes Affected by Humans? 1072
CHAPTER 49 REVIEW 1074
50 Behavioral Ecology 1076
50.1 An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology 1077
Proximate and Ultimate Causation 1077
Types of Behavior: An Overview 1078
Choices Involve Trade-Offs 1079
50.2 Choosing What, How, and When to Eat 1079
Proximate Causes: Foraging Alleles in Drosophila
melαnogα， ster 1079
illtimate Causes: Optimal Foraging 1080
50.3 Choosing a Mate 1082
Proximate Causes: How is Sexual Activity Triggered in Anolis
Lizards? 1 083
Ultimate Causes: Sexual Selection 1083
50.4 Choosing Where to Go 1 084
Proximate Causes: How Do Animals Navigate? 1084
Ultimate Causes: Why Do Animals Migrate? 1086
50.5 Communicating with Others 1086
Proximate Causes: How Do Honeybees Communicate? 1 087
Ultimate Causes: Why Do Honeybees Communicate the Way
They Do? 1 088
When is Communication Honest or Deceitful? 1 088
50.6 Cooperating with Others 1 089
Kin Selection 1 089
Quantitative Methods 50.1 Calculating the Coefficient of
Relatedness 1 089
Manipulation 1091
Reciprocal Altruism 1091
Cooperation and Mutualism 1092
Individuals Do Not Act for the Good of the Species 1092
Take-Home Messages 1 092
CHAPTER 50 REVIEW 1093
51 Population Ecology 109s
51.1 Distribution and Abundance 1096
Geographic Distribution 1 096
Sampling Methods 1 097
Quantitative Methods 51.1 Mark-Recapture Studies 1098
51.2 Demography and Life History 1098
Life Tables 1099
The Role of Life History 1101
Quantitative Methods
51.2 Using Life Tables to Calculate Population Growth Rates 1101
51.3 Population Growth 1103
Exponential Grow1 1103
Quantitative Methods 51.3 Using Growth Models to Predict
Population Growth 1105
Logistic Grow甘1 1106
What Factors Limit Population Size? 1107
51.4 Population Dynamics 1108
Why Do Some Populations Crash? 1108
Why Do Some Populations Cycle? 1108
How Do Meta populations Change through Time? 1110
51.5 Case Study: Human Population Growth 1112
Age Structure in Human Populations 1112
Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations 1113
Take-Home Messages 1114
CHAPTER 51 REVIEW 1114
52 Community Ecology 1111
52.1 Species Interactions 1118
Species Interaction: Commensalism 1118
Species Interaction: Competition 1118
Species Interaction: Consumption 1122
Species Interactions: Mutualism 1125
Take-Home Messages 1127
52.2 Community Structure 1128
How Many Species Occur in Communities? 1128
How Do Species Interactions Form Networks? 1128
Quantitative Methods 52.1 Measuring Species Diversity 1129
Why Are Some Species More Important than Others in
Structuring Communities? 1130
How Predictable Are Communities? 1131
52.3 Community Dynamics 1133
Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities 1133
Succession: The Development of Communities after
Disturbance 1134
52.4 Geographic Patterns in Species Richness 1136
Predicting Species Richness: The Theory of Island
Biogeography 1137
Global Patterns in Species Richness 1138
CHAPTER 52 REVIEW 1139
53 Ecosystems and Global
Ecology 1141
53.1 How Does Energy Flow through Ecosystems? 1142
How Efficient Are Autotrophs at Capturing Solar Energy? 1142
What Happens to the Biomass of Autotrophs? 1143
Energy Transfer between Trophic Levels 1145
Global Patterns in Productivity 114 7
53.2 How Do Nutrients Cycle through Ecosystems? 1149
Nutrient Cycling within Ecosystems 1149
Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1151
53.3 Global Climate Change 1155
What Is the Cause of Global Climate Change? 1155
How Much Is the Climate Changing? 1157
Biological Effects of Climate Change 1159
Consequences to Net Primary Productivity 1161
CHAPTER 53 REVIEW 1163
54 Biodiversity and Conservation
Biology 1165
54.1 What Is Biodiversity? 1166
Biodiversi Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels 1166
How Many Species Are Living Today? 1168
Where Is Biodiversity Highest? 1168
54.2 Threats to Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1170
Multiple Interacting Threats 1171
How Will These Threats Affect Future Extinction Rates? 1175
Quantitative Methods 54.1 Species-Area Plots 1176
54.3 Why Are Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
Important? 1177
Biological Benefits of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1177
Ecosystem Services: Economic and Social Benefits of
Biodiversity and Ecosystems 11 79
An Ethical Dimension 1181
54.4 Preserving Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1181
Addressing the Ultimate Causes of Loss 1182
Conservation Strategies to Preserve Genetic Diversity, Species,
and Ecosystem Function 1182
Take-Home Message 11 85
CHAPTER 54 REVIEW 1186
What Is the Larger Ecological Context of Toxic
Newts? 1188
Ecology 1190
APPEN01x A Answers A:1
APPEN01x s Periodic Table of Elerγ1ents s:1
Glossary G:1
Credits cr:1
Index 1:1