Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, Tenth Edition
By Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, and Mehmet Kanoğlu
Contents:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1
1–1 Thermodynamics and Energy 2
Application Areas of Thermodynamics 3
1–2 Importance of Dimensions and Units 4
Some SI and English Units 6
Dimensional Homogeneity 8
Unity Conversion Ratios 9
1–3 Systems and Control Volumes 10
1–4 Properties of a System 12
Continuum 13
1–5 Density and Specific Gravity 13
1–6 State and Equilibrium 15
The State Postulate 15
1–7 Processes and Cycles 16
The Steady-Flow Process 17
1–8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics 17
Temperature Scales 18
1–9 Pressure 21
Variation of Pressure with Depth 23
1–10 Pressure Measurement Devices 25
The Barometer 25
The Manometer 28
Other Pressure Measurement Devices 31
1–11 Problem-Solving Technique 32
Step 1: Problem Statement 32
Step 2: Schematic 32
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations 33
Step 4: Physical Laws 33
Step 5: Properties 33
Step 6: Calculations 33
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion 33
Engineering Software Packages 34
Equation Solvers 35
A Remark on Significant Digits 36
Summary 37
References and Suggested Readings 37
Problems 38
C H A P T E R TWO
ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND
GENERAL
ENERGY ANALYSIS 47
2–1 Introduction 48
2–2 Forms of Energy 49
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy 51
More on Nuclear Energy 52
Mechanical Energy 53
2–3 Energy Transfer by Heat 55
Historical Background on Heat 57
2–4 Energy Transfer by Work 58
Electrical Work 60
2–5 Mechanical Forms of Work 61
Shaft Work 62
Spring Work 63
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars 63
Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film 63
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body 64
Nonmechanical Forms of Work 65
2–6 The First Law of Thermodynamics 66
Energy Balance 67
Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem 67
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout 68
2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 73
Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices 76
2–8 Energy and Environment 80
Ozone and Smog 81
Acid Rain 82
The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate
Change 82
Topic of Special Interest: Mechanisms of
Heat Transfer 85
Summary 90
References and Suggested Readings 90
Problems 91
C H A P T E R T H R E E
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 101
3–1 Pure Substance 102
3–2 Phases of a Pure Substance 102
3–3 Phase-Change Processes of
Pure Substances 103
Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid 103
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor 104
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure 104
Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence 106
3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 107
1 The T-v Diagram 108
2 The P-v Diagram 109
Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase 110
3 The P-T Diagram 111
The P-v-T Surface 112
3–5 Property Tables 113
Enthalpy—A Combination Property 113
1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 114
1b Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture 115
2 Superheated Vapor 118
3 Compressed Liquid 120
Reference State and Reference Values 121
3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 124
Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas? 126
3–7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure
of Deviation
from Ideal-
Gas Behavior 127
3–8 Other Equations of State 131
van der Waals Equation of State 131
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State 132
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State 132
Virial Equation of State 133
Topic of Special Interest: Vapor Pressure and Phase
Equilibrium 135
Summary 139
References and Suggested Readings 139
Problems 140
C H A P T E R F O U R
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED
SYSTEMS 149
4–1 Moving Boundary Work 150
Polytropic Process 153
4–2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems 155
Constant-Pressure Processes of Closed Systems 157
4–3 Specific Heats 160
4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of
Ideal Gases 162
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases 165
4–5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of
Solids and Liquids 170
Internal Energy Changes 170
Enthalpy Changes 171
Topic of Special Interest: Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological
Systems 174
Summary 180
References and Suggested Readings 181
Problems 182
C H A P T E R F I V E
MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OFCONTROL
VOLUMES 197
5–1 Conservation of Mass 198
Mass and Volume Flow Rates 198
Conservation of Mass Principle 199
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes 201
Special Case: Incompressible Flow 202
5–2 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing
Fluid 204
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid 205
Energy Transport by Mass 206
5–3 Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems 208
5–4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices 211
1 Nozzles and Diffusers 212
2 Turbines and Compressors 215
3 Throttling Valves 217
4a Mixing Chambers 218
4b Heat Exchangers 220
5 Pipe and Duct Flow 222
5–5 Energy Analysis of Unsteady-
Flow
Processes 224
Summary 230
References and Suggested Readings 231
Problems 231
C H A P T E R S I X
THE SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS 251
6–1 Introduction to the Second Law 252
6–2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs 253
6–3 Heat Engines 254
Thermal Efficiency 256
Can We Save Qout? 257
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin–Planck
Statement 259
6–4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 260
Coefficient of Performance 261
Heat Pumps 262
Performance of Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat
Pumps 262
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius
Statement 264
Equivalence of the Two Statements 264
6–5 Perpetual-Motion Machines 266
6–6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 268
Irreversibilities 269
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes 270
6–7 The Carnot Cycle 271
The Reversed Carnot Cycle 273
6–8 The Carnot Principles 273
6–9 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 275
6–10 The Carnot Heat Engine 277
The Quality of Energy 278
Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life 279
6–11 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump 280
Topic of Special Interest: Household Refrigerators 284
Summary 287
References and Suggested Readings 288
Problems 288
C H A P T E R S E V E N
ENTROPY 301
7–1 Clausius Inequalıty and Entropy 302
A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer
Processes 304
7–2 Entropy Generation and the Increase of Entropy
Principle 305
Some Remarks About Entropy 307
7–3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances 309
7–4 Isentropic Processes 312
7–5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 314
7–6 What Is Entropy? 316
The Concept of Entropy in Daily Life 318
7–7 Differential Entropy Change Relations 319
7–8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids 321
7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 324
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) 324
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) 325
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases 327
Summary 331
References and Suggested Readings 332
Problems 332
C H A P T E R E I G H T
ENTROPY ANALYSIS 343
8–1 Reversible Steady-Flow Work 344
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and
Consume the Least Work When the Process Is
Reversible 346
8–2 Minimizing the Compressor Work 348
Multistage Compression with Intercooling 349
8–3 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow
Devices 351
Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines 352
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps 353
Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles 355
8–4 Entropy Balance 357
Entropy Change of a System, ΔSsystem 358
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout 358
Entropy Generation, Sgen 360
8–5 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 361
Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat
Transfer Process 365
8–6 Entropy Balance for Control Volumes 366
Topic of Special Interest: Reducing the Cost of
Compressed Air 369
Summary 377
References and Suggested Readings 378
Problems 378
C H A P T E R N I N E
EXERGY 391
9–1 Exergy: Work Potential of Energy 392
Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential
Energy 393
9–2 Reversible Work and Irreversibility 395
9–3 Second-Law Efficiency 399
9–4 Exergy Change of a System 403
Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System)
Exergy 403
Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy 405
9–5 Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass 409
Exergy Transfer by Heat, Q 409
Exergy Transfer by Work, W 410
Exergy Transfer by Mass, m 410
9–6 The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy
Destruction 411
Exergy Destruction 412
9–7 Exergy Balance: Closed Systems 413
9–8 Exergy Balance: Control Volumes 424
Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems 425
Reversible Work 425
Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices 426
Topic of Special Interest: Implications of the Second-Law
Concepts in Daily Life 431
Summary 434
References and Suggested Readings 435
Problems 435
C H A P T E R T E N
GAS POWER CYCLES 449
10–1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis
of Power Cycles 450
10–2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value
in Engineering 452
10–3 Air-Standard Assumptions 454
10–4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 455
10–5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition
Engines 457
10–6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for
Compression-
Ignition Engines 463
10–7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 467
10–8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine
Engines 470
Development of Gas Turbines 473
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized
Ones 475
10–9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 477
10–10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling,
Reheating,
and Regeneration 479
10–11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 483
Modifications to Turbojet Engines 487
10–12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles 489
Topic of Special Interest: Saving Fuel and Money by
Driving Sensibly 493
Summary 499
References and Suggested Readings 500
Problems 500
C H A P T E R E L E V E N
VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER
CYCLES 515
11–1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle 516
11–2 Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power
Cycles 516
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle 517
11–3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from
Idealized Ones 520
11–4 How Can We Increase the Efficiency
of the
Rankine
Cycle? 522
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg) 523
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg) 523
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg) 523
11–5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle 526
11–6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle 530
Open Feedwater Heaters 531
Closed Feedwater Heaters 532
11–7 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles 538
11–8 Cogeneration 541
11–9 Combined Gas–Vapor Power Cycles 545
Topic of Special Interest: Binary Vapor Cycles 548
Summary 549
References and Suggested Readings 550
Problems 550
C H A P T E R T W E LV E
REFRIGERATION CYCLES 565
12–1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 566
12–2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 567
12–3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle 568
12–4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle 571
12–5 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration
Cycle 573
12–6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 578
12–7 Heat Pump Systems 580
12–8 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Systems 582
Cascade Refrigeration Systems 582
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems 584
Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single
Compressor 586
Liquefaction of Gases 587
12–9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 591
12–10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 594
Topic of Special Interest: Thermoelectric Power Generation
and Refrigeration Systems 598
Summary 600
References and Suggested Readings 600
Problems 601
C H A P T E R T H I R T E E N
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY
RELATIONS 615
13–1 A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and Associated
Relations 616
Partial Differentials 617
Partial Differential Relations 618
13–2 The Maxwell Relations 620
13–3 The Clapeyron Equation 622
13–4 General Relations for du, dh, ds, cv, and cp 625
Internal Energy Changes 625
Enthalpy Changes 626
Entropy Changes 627
Specific Heats cv and cp 627
13–5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 631
13–6 The Δh, Δu, and Δs of Real Gases 633
Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases 633
Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases 635
Entropy Changes of Real Gases 635
Summary 638
References and Suggested Readings 639
Problems 639
C H A P T E R F O U RT E E N
GAS MIXTURES 645
14–1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole
Fractions 646
14–2 P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real
Gases 647
Ideal-Gas Mixtures 648
Real-Gas Mixtures 649
14–3 Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases 652
Ideal-Gas Mixtures 653
Real-Gas Mixtures 656
Topic of Special Interest: Chemical Potential and
the Separation Work of Mixtures 660
Summary 669
References and Suggested Readings 669
Problems 670
C H A P T E R F I F T E E N
GAS–VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING 677
15–1 Dry and Atmospheric Air 678
15–2 Specific and Relative Humidity of air 679
15–3 Dew-Point Temperature 682
15–4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 684
15–5 The Psychrometric Chart 686
15–6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning 688
15–7 Air-Conditioning Processes 690
Simple Heating and Cooling (ω = constant) 691
Heating with Humidification 692
Cooling with Dehumidification 693
Evaporative Cooling 695
Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams 696
Wet Cooling Towers 698
Summary 700
References and Suggested Readings 701
Problems 702
C H A P T E R S I X T E E N
CHEMICAL REACTIONS 711
16–1 Fuels and Combustion 712
16–2 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes 715
16–3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion 721
16–4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 725
Steady-Flow Systems 725
Closed Systems 727
16–5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 730
16–6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems 733
16–7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 735
Topic of Special Interest: Fuel Cells 740
Summary 741
References and Suggested Readings 742
Problems 743
C H A P T E R S E V E N T E E N
CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 753
17–1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium 754
17–2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures 756
17–3 Some Remarks About the KP of Ideal-Gas Mixtures 760
17–4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions 764
17–5 Variation of KP with Temperature 766
17–6 Phase Equilibrium 768
Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System 768
The Phase Rule 769
Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System 769
Summary 775
References and Suggested Readings 776
Problems 776
C H A P T E R E I G H T E E N
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 785
18–1 Stagnation Properties 786
18–2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 789
18–3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 792
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 793
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases 795
18–4 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles 798
Converging Nozzles 798
Converging–Diverging Nozzles 802
18–5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 806
Normal Shocks 806
Oblique Shocks 811
Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 815
18–6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible
Friction (Rayleigh Flow) 819
Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 824
Choked Rayleigh Flow 825
18–7 Steam Nozzles 828
Summary 831
References and Suggested Readings 832
Problems 832
A P P E N D I X O N E
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
(SI UNITS) 839
Table A–1 Molar mass, gas constant, and criticalpoint properties 840
Table A–2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases 841
Table A–3 Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods 844
Table A–4 Saturated water—Temperature table 846
Table A–5 Saturated water—Pressure table 848
Table A–6 Superheated water 850
Table A–7 Compressed liquid water 854
Table A–8 Saturated ice–water vapor 855
Figure A–9 T-s diagram for water 856
Figure A–10 Mollier diagram for water 857
Table A–11 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table 858
Table A–12 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table 860
Table A–13 Superheated refrigerant-134a 861
Figure A–14 P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 863
Figure A–15 Nelson–Obert generalized compressibility chart 864
Table A–16 Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude 866
Table A–17 Ideal-gas properties of air 867
Table A–18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2 869
Table A–19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 871
Table A–20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2 873
Table A–21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO 875
Table A–22 Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2 877
Table A–23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O 878
Table A–24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen, O 880
Table A–25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl, OH 880
Table A–26 Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of
formation, and absolute entropy at 25°C, 1 atm 881
Table A–27 Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons 882
Table A–28 Natural logarithms of the equilibrium constant Kp 883
Figure A–29 Generalized enthalpy departure chart 884
Figure A–30 Generalized entropy departure chart 885
Figure A–31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure 886
Table A–32 One-dimensional isentropic compressible flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 887
Table A–33 One-dimensional normal-shock functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 888
Table A–34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 889
A P P E N D I X TWO
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
(ENGLISH UNITS) 891
Table A–1E Molar mass, gas constant, and criticalpoint properties 892
Table A–2E Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases 893
Table A–3E Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods 896
Table A–4E Saturated water—Temperature table 898
Table A–5E Saturated water—Pressure table 900
Table A–6E Superheated water 902
Table A–7E Compressed liquid water 906
Table A–8E Saturated ice–water vapor 907
Figure A–9E T-s diagram for water 908
Figure A–10E Mollier diagram for water 909
Table A–11E Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table 910
Table A–12E Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table 911
Table A–13E Superheated refrigerant-134a 912
Figure A–14E P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 914
Table A–16E Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude 915
Table A–17E Ideal-gas properties of air 916
Table A–18E Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2 918
Table A–19E Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 920
Table A–20E Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2 922
Table A–21E Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO 924
Table A–22E Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2 926
Table A–23E Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O 928
Table A–26E Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, and absolute entropy at 77°F, 1 atm 929
Table A–27E Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons 930
Figure A–31E Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure 931
INDEX 933
NOMENCLATURE 945
CONVERSION FACTORS 947