Essentials of Biology, Seventh Edition
By Sylvia S. Mader and Michael Windelspecht
Contents:
CHAPTER 1
Biology: The Science of Life 1
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2
Life Requires Materials and Energy 2
Living Organisms Maintain an
Internal Environment 4
Living Organisms Respond 4
Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop 5
Living Organisms Have Adaptations 5
1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept of Biology 6
Natural Selection and Evolutionary Processes 7
Organizing the Diversity of Life 9
1.3 Science: A Way of Knowing 11
Start with an Observation 11
Develop a Hypothesis 12
Make a Prediction and Perform Experiments 12
Develop a Conclusion 14
Scientific Theory 14
An Example of a Controlled Study 14
Publishing the Results 15
1.4 Challenges Facing Science 16
Climate Change 16
Biodiversity and Habitat Loss 17
Emerging and Reemerging Diseases 18
UNIT I The Cell
CHAPTER 2
The Chemical Basis of Life 21
2.1 Atoms and Atomic Bonds 22
Atomic Structure 22
The Periodic Table 23
Isotopes 23
Arrangement of Electrons in an Atom 25
Types of Chemical Bonds 26
Chemical Formulas and Reactions 28
2.2 Water’s Importance to Life 29
The Structure of Water 29
Properties of Water 29
2.3 Acids and Bases 32
Acidic Solutions 33
Basic Solutions 33
pH and the pH Scale 34
Buffers and pH 34
CHAPTER 3
The Organic Molecules of Life 37
3.1 Organic Molecules 38
The Carbon Atom 38
The Carbon Skeleton and Functional Groups 39
3.2 Carbohydrates and Lipids 40
Building Complex Biological Molecules 40
Carbohydrates 40
Lipids 43
3.3 Proteins and Nucleic Acids 48
Proteins 48
Nucleic Acids 52
CHAPTER 4
Inside the Cell 57
4.1 Cells Under the Microscope 58
The Limit to Cell Size 60
4.2 The Plasma Membrane 60
Functions of Membrane Proteins 62
4.3 The Two Main Types of Cells 63
Prokaryotic Cells 63
4.4 A Tour of the Eukaryotic Cell 65
Nucleus and Ribosomes 67
Endomembrane System 70
Vesicles and Vacuoles 71
Energy-Related Organelles 71
The Cytoskeleton and Motor Proteins 74
Centrioles 75
Cilia and Flagella 75
4.5 Outside the Eukaryotic Cell 76
Cell Walls 76
Extracellular Matrix 76
Junctions Between Cells 77
CHAPTER 5
The Dynamic Cell 81
5.1 What Is Energy? 82
Measuring Energy 82
Energy Laws 83
5.2 ATP: Energy for Cells 84
Structure of ATP 84
Use and Production of ATP 85
The Flow of Energy 87
5.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes 88
An Enzyme’s Active Site 89
Energy of Activation 90
5.4 Cell Transport 90
Passive Transport: No Energy Required 91
Active Transport: Energy Required 94
Bulk Transport 95
CHAPTER 6
Energy for Life 99
6.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 100
Plants as Photosynthesizers 101
The Photosynthetic Process 102
6.2 The Light Reactions—Harvesting Energy 103
Photosynthetic Pigments 103
The Light Reactions: Capturing Solar Energy 104
6.3 The Calvin Cycle Reactions—Making
Sugars 107
Overview of the Calvin Cycle 107
The Many Uses of G3P 108
6.4 Variations in Photosynthesis 109
C3 Photosynthesis 110
C4 Photosynthesis 110
CAM Photosynthesis 111
Evolutionary Trends 111
CHAPTER 7
Energy for Cells 114
7.1 Cellular Respiration 115
Phases of Complete Glucose Breakdown 115
7.2 Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 117
Energy-Investment Step 117
Energy-Harvesting Steps 118
7.3 Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation 118
Lactic Acid Fermentation 119
Alcohol Fermentation 120
7.4 Inside the Mitochondria 120
Preparatory Reaction 120
The Citric Acid Cycle 121
The Electron Transport Chain 121
7.5 Metabolic Fate of Food 124
Energy Yield from Glucose Metabolism 124
Alternative Metabolic Pathways 125
UNIT II Genetics
CHAPTER 8
Cellular Reproduction 128
8.1 An Overview of Cellular Reproduction 129
Chromosomes 129
Chromatin to Chromosomes 130
8.2 The Cell Cycle: Interphase, Mitosis,
and Cytokinesis 131
Interphase 131
M (Mitotic) Phase 132
8.3 The Cell Cycle Control System 136
Cell Cycle Checkpoints 137
Internal and External Signals 137
Apoptosis 138
8.4 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 139
Genetic Control of the Cell Cycle 140
Other Genetic Changes and Cancer 141
8.5 Characteristics of Cancer 143
Characteristics of Cancer Cells 143
Cancer Treatment 144
Prevention of Cancer 145
CHAPTER 9
Meiosis and the Genetic Basis of
Sexual Reproduction 149
9.1 An Overview of Meiosis 150
Homologous Chromosomes 150
The Human Life Cycle 151
Overview of Meiosis 152
9.2 The Phases of Meiosis 154
The First Division—Meiosis I 155
The Second Division—Meiosis II 155
9.3 Meiosis Compared with Mitosis 156
Meiosis I Compared with Mitosis 157
Meiosis II Compared with Mitosis 158
Mitosis and Meiosis Occur at Different Times 158
9.4 Changes in Chromosome Number 158
Down Syndrome 160
Abnormal Sex Chromosome Number 160
CHAPTER 10
Patterns of Inheritance 164
10.1 Mendel’s Laws 165
Mendel’s Experimental Procedure 165
One-Trait Inheritance 166
Two-Trait Inheritance 169
Mendel’s Laws and Probability 170
Mendel’s Laws and Meiosis 171
10.2 Mendel’s Laws Apply to Humans 172
Family Pedigrees 172
Genetic Disorders of Interest 173
10.3 Beyond Mendel’s Laws 176
Incomplete Dominance 176
Multiple-Allele Traits 177
Polygenic Inheritance 177
Gene Interactions 179
Pleiotropy 180
Linkage 180
10.4 Sex-Linked Inheritance 181
Sex-Linked Alleles 182
Pedigrees for Sex-Linked Disorders 183
X-Linked Recessive Disorders 184
CHAPTER 11
The Instructions for Life: DNA
and RNA 187
11.1 DNA and RNA Structure and
Function 188
The Structure of DNA 188
Replication of DNA 192
RNA Structure and Function 193
11.2 Gene Expression 194
From DNA to RNA to Protein 195
Review of Gene Expression 199
11.3 Gene Regulation 201
Levels of Gene Expression Control 201
CHAPTER 12
Biotechnology and Genomics 210
12.1 Biotechnology 211
Recombinant DNA Technology 211
DNA Sequencing 212
Polymerase Chain Reaction 212
DNA Analysis 214
Genome Editing 214
12.2 Biotechnology Products 216
Genetically Modified Bacteria 217
Genetically Modified Plants 217
Genetically Modified Animals 218
12.3 Stem Cells and Cloning 220
Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning 220
12.4 Genomics and Proteomics 222
Sequencing the Bases of the Human Genome 222
Proteomics and Bioinformatics 224
CHAPTER 13
Mutations and Genetic Testing 227
13.1 Gene Mutations 228
Causes of Gene Mutations 228
Types and Effects of Mutations 229
13.2 Chromosomal Mutations 230
Deletions 230
Duplications 230
Translocation 231
Inversion 232
13.3 Genetic Testing 232
Obtaining Chromosomes for Analysis 233
Karyotype Analysis 233
Testing for a Protein 234
Testing the DNA 234
Testing the Fetus 236
Testing the Embryo and Egg 237
13.4 Gene Therapy 238
Ex Vivo Gene Therapy 238
In Vivo Gene Therapy 240
UNIT III Evolution
CHAPTER 14
Darwin and Evolution 242
14.1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 243
Before Darwin 243
Darwin’s Conclusions 246
Natural Selection and Adaptation 249
Darwin and Wallace 251
14.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 252
Fossil Evidence 252
Biogeographical Evidence 254
Anatomical Evidence 254
Molecular Evidence 256
CHAPTER 15
Evolution on a Small Scale 259
15.1 Natural Selection 260
Types of Selection 260
Sexual Selection 263
Adaptations Are Not Perfect 263
Maintenance of Variation 264
15.2 Microevolution 265
Evolution in a Genetic Context 266
Causes of Microevolution 269
CHAPTER 16
Evolution on a Large Scale 274
16.1 Speciation and Macroevolution 275
Defining Species 275
Models of Speciation 278
16.2 The Fossil Record 281
The Geologic Time Scale 281
The Pace of Speciation 284
Causes of Mass Extinctions 284
16.3 Systematics 286
Linnaean Classification 287
Phylogenetic Trees 287
Cladistics and Cladograms 289
The Three-Domain System 291
UNIT IV Diversity of Life
CHAPTER 17
Viruses, Bacteria, and Protists 295
17.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 296
Structure of a Virus 296
Viral Reproduction 296
Plant Viruses 297
Animal Viruses 298
Viroids and Prions 300
17.2 Emerging Viruses and SARS-CoV-2 301
COVID-19 303
17.3 Prokaryotes 305
The Origin of the First Cells 305
Bacteria 306
The Archaea 311
17.4 Protists 313
Evolution of Protists 313
Classification of Protists 313
CHAPTER 18
Plants and Fungi 322
18.1 An Overview of Plants 323
An Overview of Plant Evolution 323
Alternation of Generations 325
18.2 The Diversity of Plants 326
Nonvascular Plants 326
Vascular Plants 327
Seed Plants 330
18.3 Fungi 336
General Biology of a Fungus 336
Fungal Diversity 337
Ecological Benefits of Fungi 340
Economic Benefits of Fungi 341
Fungi as Disease-Causing Organisms 342
CHAPTER 19
Animals 347
19.1 The Evolution of Animals 348
Ancestry of Animals 349
The Evolutionary Tree of Animals 349
Evolutionary Trends 350
19.2 Sponges and Cnidarians:
The Early Animals 352
Sponges: Multicellularity 352
Cnidarians: True Tissues 353
19.3 Flatworms, Mollusks, and Annelids:
The Lophotrochozoans 354
Flatworms: Bilateral Symmetry 354
Mollusks 355
Annelids: Segmented Worms 356
19.4 Roundworms and Arthropods: The
Ecdysozoans 358
Roundworms: Pseudocoelomates 358
Arthropods: Jointed Appendages 359
19.5 Echinoderms and Chordates:
The Deuterostomes 364
Echinoderms 364
Chordates 365
Fishes: First Jaws and Lungs 367
Amphibians: Jointed Vertebrate Limbs 369
Reptiles: Amniotic Egg 370
Mammals: Hair and Mammary Glands 372
19.6 Human Evolution 375
Evolution of Humanlike Hominins 376
Evolution of Modern Humans 379
UNIT V Plant Structure and Function
CHAPTER 20
Plant Anatomy and Growth 384
20.1 Plant Cells and Tissues 385
Epidermal Tissue 385
Ground Tissue 386
Vascular Tissue 387
20.2 Plant Organs 387
Monocots Versus Eudicots 388
20.3 Organization of Leaves, Stems,
and Roots 389
Leaves 390
Stems 392
Roots 394
20.4 Plant Nutrition 397
Adaptations of Roots for Mineral Uptake 398
20.5 Transport of Nutrients 399
Water Transport in Xylem 399
Sugar Transport in Phloem 400
CHAPTER 21
Plant Responses and
Reproduction 403
21.1 Plant Hormones 404
Auxins 404
Gibberellins 405
Cytokinins 406
Abscisic Acid 406
Ethylene 407
21.2 Plant Responses 408
Tropisms 408
Photoperiodism 409
21.3 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering
Plants 410
Overview of the Plant Life Cycle 410
Flowers 411
From Spores to Fertilization 412
Development of the Seed in a Eudicot 414
Monocots Versus Eudicots 414
Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal 415
Germination of Seeds 416
21.4 Asexual Reproduction and Genetic
Engineering in Plants 418
Propagation of Plants in a Garden 418
Propagation of Plants in Tissue Culture 418
Genetic Engineering of Plants 419
UNIT VI Animal Structure and Function
CHAPTER 22
Organization of the Animal Body
and Homeostasis 424
22.1 The Body’s Organization 425
Epithelial Tissue Protects 427
Connective Tissue Connects and Supports 429
Muscular Tissue Moves the Body 431
Nervous Tissue Communicates 432
22.2 Organs and Organ Systems 433
Transport and Protection 434
Maintenance of the Body 434
Control 434
Sensory Input and Motor Output 435
Reproduction 435
22.3 Homeostasis 436
Organ Systems and Homeostasis 436
Negative Feedback 437
CHAPTER 23
The Transport Systems 441
23.1 Open and Closed Circulatory
Systems 442
Open Circulatory Systems 443
Closed Circulatory Systems 444
Comparison of Vertebrate Circulatory
Pathways 444
23.2 Circulation in Humans 445
The Human Heart 446
Blood Vessels 447
Lymphatic System 450
Capillary Exchange in the Tissues 451
23.3 Blood: A Transport Medium 452
Plasma 452
Formed Elements 453
Cardiovascular Disorders 455
CHAPTER 24
The Maintenance Systems 459
24.1 Respiratory System 460
The Human Respiratory Tract 461
Breathing 462
Lungs and External Exchange
of Gases 463
Respiration in Other Animals 464
Transport and Internal Exchange of Gases 465
24.2 Urinary System 466
Human Kidney 467
Problems with Kidney Function 471
CHAPTER 25
Digestion and Human
Nutrition 475
25.1 Digestive System 476
Complete and Incomplete Digestive
Systems 476
The Digestive Tract 476
Accessory Organs 482
Digestive Enzymes 483
25.2 Nutrition 485
Introducing the Nutrients 485
25.3 The Classes of Nutrients 486
Carbohydrates 487
Lipids 488
Proteins 489
Minerals 490
Vitamins 492
Water 493
25.4 Understanding Nutrition
Guidelines 494
Updating Dietary Guidelines 494
Visualizing Dietary Guidelines 494
The Bottom Line 496
25.5 Nutrition and Health 496
Body Mass Index 497
Disorders Associated with Obesity 500
Eating Disorders 501
CHAPTER 26
Defenses Against Disease 504
26.1 Overview of the Immune
System 505
Lymphatic Organs 505
Cells of the Immune System 507
26.2 Nonspecific Defenses and
Innate Immunity 507
Barriers to Entry 507
The Inflammatory Response 508
The Complement System 509
Natural Killer Cells 509
26.3 Specific Defenses and Adaptive
Immunity 510
B Cells and the Antibody Response 510
T Cells and the Cellular Response 511
26.4 Immunizations 514
26.5 Disorders of the Immune System 516
Allergies 516
Autoimmune Diseases 517
AIDS 517
CHAPTER 27
The Control Systems 521
27.1 Nervous System 522
Examples of Nervous Systems 523
The Human Nervous System 523
Neurons 524
The Nerve Impulse 524
The Synapse 525
Substance Abuse Disorders 526
The Central Nervous System 529
The Peripheral Nervous System 532
27.2 Endocrine System 536
The Action of Hormones 536
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 537
Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 539
Adrenal Glands 540
Pancreas 541
CHAPTER 28
Sensory Input and Motor Output 546
28.1 The Senses 547
Chemical Senses 547
Hearing and Balance 548
Vision 552
Cutaneous Receptors and
Proprioceptors 554
28.2 The Motor Systems 556
Types of Skeletons 556
The Human Skeleton 557
Skeletal Muscle Structure and
Physiology 558
CHAPTER 29
Reproduction, Development,
and Aging 566
29.1 How Animals Reproduce 567
Asexual Versus Sexual
Reproduction 567
Sexual Reproduction 567
29.2 Human Reproduction 569
Male Reproductive System 569
Female Reproductive System 572
Control of Reproduction 575
Infertility 577
Sexually Transmitted Diseases 578
29.3 Human Embryonic Development 581
Fertilization 582
Early Embryonic Development 582
Later Embryonic Development 583
Placenta 585
Fetal Development and Birth 586
29.4 Aging in Humans 588
Factors Influencing Aging 588
UNIT VII Ecology
CHAPTER 30
Ecology of Populations 592
30.1 The Science of Ecology 593
Ecology: A Biological Science 594
30.2 The Human Population 595
Present Population Growth 595
Projections of Future Population
Growth 597
More-Developed Versus Less-Developed
Countries 597
Comparing Age Structures 598
Population Growth and Environmental
Impact 599
30.3 Characteristics of Populations 600
Distribution and Density 601
Population Growth 601
Patterns of Population Growth 603
Factors That Regulate Population
Growth 604
30.4 Life History Patterns and
Extinction 607
Extinction 607
CHAPTER 31
Communities and Ecosystems 611
31.1 Ecology of Communities 612
Community Composition and
Diversity 613
Ecological Succession 613
Interactions in Communities 615
Community Stability 618
31.2 Ecology of Ecosystems 621
Autotrophs 621
Heterotrophs 622
Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling 622
Chemical Cycling 625
31.3 Aquatic and Terrestrial
Ecosystems 631
Terrestrial Ecosystems 633
Primary Productivity 634
31.4 Ecological Consequences of Climate
Change 635
Contributors to Climate Change 635
Consequences of Climate Change 635
CHAPTER 32
Human Impact on the Biosphere 639
32.1 Conservation Biology 640
32.2 Biodiversity 641
Direct Values of Biodiversity 642
Indirect Values of Biodiversity 644
32.3 Resources and Environmental Impact 646
Land 646
Water 648
Food 650
Energy 652
Minerals 654
Other Sources of Pollution 654
32.4 Sustainable Societies 656
Today’s Society 656
Characteristics of a Sustainable Society 657
Appendix A Periodic Table of Elements
& The Metric System A-1
Glossary G-1
Index I-1