Psychology, Fourteenth Edition
Carole Wade, Carol Tavris, Samuel R. Sommers and Lisa M. Shin
Contents
About This Course xii
Content Highlights xv
About the Authors xvii
Authors’ Acknowledgments xviii
Learning Outcomes and Assessment xix
1 What Is Psychology? 1
1.1 Psychology, Pseudoscience, and the Perils of Common Sense 2
1.1.A What Psychology Is 3
1.1.B What Psychology Is Not 4
1.2 Thinking Critically About Psychology 5
1.2.A What Is Critical Thinking? 5
1.2.B Critical Thinking Steps 6
1.3 A History of Psychology: From the Armchair to the Laboratory 10
1.3.A The Forerunners of Modern Psychology 10
1.3.B The Birth of Modern Psychology 11
Revisiting the Classics: Sigmund Freud 13
1.4 Psychological Science Perspectives 14
1.4.A Pillars of Modern Psychology 14
1.4.B Gender, Race, and Diversity in Psychology 17
Taking Psychology with You: Using Psychology to Study Psychology 19
1.5 What Psychologists Do 20
1.5.A Psychological Research 20
1.5.B Psychological Practice 21
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: That’s Just
Fake News! 24
2 How Psychologists Do Research 27
2.1 What Makes Psychological Research Scientific? 29
2.1.A Precision and Reliance on Empirical
Evidence 29
2.1.B Skepticism 30
2.1.C Willingness to Make “Risky Predictions” 31
2.1.D Transparency 32
Replication Check 32
Taking Psychology with You: Distinguishing
Real Science From Fake Science 33
2.2 Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts 34
2.2.A Finding a Sample 34
Revisiting the Classics: Convenience Sampling 35
2.2.B Case Studies 35
2.2.C Observational Studies 37
2.2.D Tests 38
2.2.E Surveys 40
2.2.F Cross-Cultural Studies 40
2.3 Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships 41
2.3.A Measuring Correlations 42
2.3.B Cautions About Correlations 43
2.4 Experiments: Hunting for Causes 45
2.4.A Experimental Variables 45
2.4.B Experimental and Control Conditions 46
2.4.C Advantages and Limitations of Experiments 47
2.5 Evaluating the Findings 49
2.5.A Describing the Data 49
2.5.B Inferential Statistics 50
2.5.C Interpreting the Findings 52
2.6 Keeping the Enterprise Ethical 55
2.6.A The Ethics of Studying Humans 55
2.6.B The Ethics of Studying Animals 56
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Clever Hans
the Horse Was a Math Whiz 57
3 Genes, Evolution, and Environment 62
3.1 Unlocking the Secrets of Genes 64
3.1.A The Human Genome 64
3.1.B Epigenetics 65
3.2 The Genetics of Similarity 66
3.2.A Evolution and Natural Selection 66
3.2.B Innate Human Characteristics 69
3.3 Our Human Heritage: Courtship and Mating 70
3.3.A Evolution and Sexual Strategies 71
3.3.B Thinking Critically About the Evolutionary View 72
3.4 The Genetics of Difference 75
3.4.A The Meaning of Heritability 75
3.4.B Computing Heritability 76
Taking Psychology with You: Should You Have
Genetic Testing? 77
3.5 Our Human Diversity: The Case of Intelligence 78
3.5.A Genes and Individual Differences 78
Replication Check 79
3.5.B The Question of Group Differences 80
3.5.C The Environment and Intelligence 82
Revisiting the Classics: Lewis Terman and
“The Termites” 83
3.5.D Beyond Nature Versus Nurture 84
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Astronaut Twins
No Longer Genetically Identical After Space Trip 84
4 The Brain and the Nervous System 89
4.1 The Nervous System: A Basic Blueprint 91
4.1.A The Central Nervous System 92
4.1.B The Peripheral Nervous System 92
4.2 Communication in the Nervous System 94
4.2.A Types of Cells 94
4.2.B The Structure of the Neuron 95
4.2.C Neurogenesis: The Birth of Neurons 96
4.2.D How Neurons Communicate 97
4.2.E Chemical Messengers in the Nervous System 98
4.3 Mapping the Brain 101
4.3.A Manipulating the Brain and Observing Behavior 101
4.3.B Manipulating Behavior and Observing the Brain 102
4.4 A Tour Through the Brain 105
4.4.A The Brain Stem and Cerebellum 106
4.4.B The Thalamus 106
4.4.C The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland 107
4.4.D The Amygdala 107
4.4.E The Hippocampus 108
4.4.F The Cerebrum 108
4.4.G The Cerebral Cortex 108
4.5 The Two Hemispheres of the Brain 112
4.5.A Split Brains: A House Divided 112
Revisiting the Classics: Split-Brain Patient Studies 114
4.5.B The Two Hemispheres: Allies or Opponents? 116
Replication Check 117
4.6 The Flexible Brain 117
4.6.A Experience and the Brain 117
4.6.B Culture and the Brain 118
4.6.C Sex Differences in the Brain? 119
Taking Psychology with You: Thinking Twice About
Tinkering With the Brain 122
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Computer-Based
Brain Training Games Will Keep Your Brain Young 123
5 Sensation and Perception 127
5.1 Our Sensational Senses 129
5.1.A The Riddle of Separate Sensations 129
5.1.B Measuring the Senses 130
Replication Check 132
5.1.C Sensory Adaptation 133
Revisiting the Classics: Early Sensory Deprivation
Studies 134
5.1.D Sensing Without Perceiving 135
5.2 Vision 135
5.2.A What We See 136
5.2.B An Eye on the World 136
5.2.C Why the Visual System Is Not a Camera 138
5.2.D How We See Colors 139
5.2.E Constructing the Visual World 140
Replication Check 146
5.3 Hearing 147
5.3.A What We Hear 147
5.3.B An Ear on the World 148
5.3.C Constructing the Auditory World 149
5.4 Other Senses 151
5.4.A Taste: Savory Sensations 151
5.4.B Smell: The Sense of Scents 153
5.4.C Senses of the Skin 155
5.4.D The Mystery of Pain 155
Taking Psychology with You: Why Perception Can
Be More Than Meets the Eye 157
5.4.E The Environment Within 158
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: People Can
Smell Fear 159
6 Consciousness and Sleep 163
6.1 Biological Rhythms: The Tides of Experience 165
6.1.A Circadian Rhythms 165
6.1.B Moods and Long-Term Rhythms 167
6.2 The Rhythms of Sleep 169
6.2.A The Realms of Sleep 169
Replication Check 171
6.2.B Why We Sleep 171
Revisiting the Classics: Extreme Sleep Deprivation
Studies 173
Taking Psychology with You: Improving the Quality
(and Quantity) of Your Sleep 175
6.3 Exploring the Dream World 175
6.3.A Explanations of Dreaming 176
6.3.B Evaluating Dream Theories 179
6.4 The Riddle of Hypnosis 180
6.4.A The Nature of Hypnosis 180
6.4.B Theories of Hypnosis 181
Replication Check 183
6.5 Consciousness-Altering Drugs 185
6.5.A Classifying Drugs 185
6.5.B The Physiology of Drug Effects 188
6.5.C The Psychology of Drug Effects 189
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: When You’re
Stumped by a Problem, You Should “Sleep on It” 190
7 Learning 194
7.1 Classical Conditioning 196
7.1.A New Reflexes From Old 196
7.1.B Principles of Classical Conditioning 197
7.1.C What Is Actually Learned in Classical
Conditioning? 199
7.2 Classical Conditioning in Real Life 200
7.2.A Learning to Like 200
7.2.B Learning to Fear 201
Revisiting the Classics: Little Albert 202
Replication Check 204
7.2.C Accounting for Taste 204
7.2.D Reacting to Medical Treatments 205
Replication Check 206
7.3 Operant Conditioning 206
7.3.A The Birth of Radical Behaviorism 207
7.3.B The Consequences of Behavior 208
7.4 Principles of Operant Conditioning 211
7.4.A The Importance of Responses 211
7.4.B Skinner: The Man and the Myth 214
7.5 Operant Conditioning in Real Life 215
Taking Psychology with You: Changing Your Behavior 216
7.5.A The Pros and Cons of Punishment 216
7.5.B The Problems With Reward 218
7.6 Learning and the Mind 220
7.6.A Latent Learning 220
7.6.B Social-Cognitive Learning Theories 221
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Kids Who Play
Violent Video Games Learn to Be More Violent 224
8 Memory 228
8.1 In Pursuit of Memory 230
8.1.A Measuring Memory 230
Replication Check 232
8.1.B Models of Memory 232
8.2 The Three-Box Model of Memory 233
8.2.A The Sensory Register: Fleeting Impressions 233
8.2.B Working Memory: Memory’s Notepad 234
Revisiting the Classics: The Magical Number 7 (± 2) 236
8.2.C Long-Term Memory: Memory’s Storage
System 236
Replication Check 239
8.3 The Biology of Memory 239
8.3.A Changes in Neurons and Synapses 239
8.3.B Where Memories Are Made 240
8.3.C Hormones, Emotion, and Memory 242
8.4 How We Remember 245
8.4.A Encoding, Rehearsal, and Retrieval 245
Taking Psychology with You: Making Memory Work
for You 248
8.5 Why We Forget 249
8.5.A Mechanisms of Forgetting 249
8.5.B Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years 252
8.5.C The Repression Controversy 253
8.6 Reconstructing the Past 255
8.6.A The Manufacture of Memory 255
8.6.B The Conditions of Confabulation 256
Replication Check 258
8.6.C The Eyewitness on Trial 258
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: This Herbal
Supplement Has Been Clinically Proven to
Boost Memory 259
9 Thinking and Intelligence 263
9.1 Thought: Using What We Know 265
9.1.A The Elements of Cognition 265
9.1.B How Conscious Is Thought? 267
9.1.C Reasoning Rationally 268
9.2 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 270
9.2.A Exaggerating the Improbable 270
Replication Check 271
9.2.B Avoiding Loss 271
Replication Check 272
9.2.C Biases and Mental Sets 273
Revisiting the Classics: Pygmalion in the Classroom 275
9.2.D Overcoming Our Cognitive Biases 276
9.3 Measuring Intelligence 276
9.3.A Measuring the Invisible 277
9.3.B The IQ Test 278
9.3.C Elements of Intelligence 281
9.3.D Motivation, Hard Work, and Intellectual Success 283
Taking Psychology with You: Bolstering Your
Focus and Creativity 284
9.4 Animal Minds 285
9.4.A Animal Intelligence 285
9.4.B Animals and Language 287
9.4.C Thinking About the Thinking of Animals 288
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Different
People Have Different Learning Styles 290
10 The Major Motives: Food, Love, Sex,
and Work 294
10.1 Motivation and the Hungry Animal 296
10.1.A Defining Motivation 296
Revisiting the Classics: Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs 297
10.1.B The Biology of Weight 298
10.1.C Environmental Influences on Weight 300
10.1.D The Body as Battleground: Eating Disorders 301
Replication Check 302
10.2 The Social Animal: Motives to Love 303
10.2.A The Biology of Love 303
10.2.B The Psychology of Love 304
10.2.C Gender, Culture, and Love 307
10.3 The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex 308
10.3.A The Biology of Desire 308
Replication Check 310
10.3.B Biology and Sexual Orientation 310
10.3.C The Psychology of Desire 312
10.3.D Gender, Culture, and Sex 314
10.4 The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve 316
10.4.A The Effects of Motivation on Work 317
10.4.B The Effects of Work on Motivation 319
10.4.C The Pursuit of Happiness 322
Taking Psychology with You: Rethinking Motivation
in the Modern Era 323
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: More College
Students Than Ever Are “Hooking Up” for Casual Sex 324
11 Emotion, Stress, and Health 328
11.1 The Nature of Emotion 330
11.1.A Emotion and the Face 330
Replication Check 333
11.1.B Emotion and the Brain 334
11.1.C Emotion and the Mind 337
Revisiting the Classics: Schachter & Singer (1962) 337
11.2 Emotion and Culture 339
11.2.A How Culture Shapes Emotions 340
11.2.B Communicating Emotions 341
11.2.C Gender and Emotion 342
11.3 The Nature of Stress 343
11.3.A Stress and the Body 344
11.3.B Stress and the Mind 347
11.4 Stress and Emotion 349
11.4.A Hostility and Depression: Do They Hurt? 349
Replication Check 349
11.4.B Positive Emotions: Do They Help? 350
11.4.C Emotional Inhibition and Expression 350
11.5 Coping With Stress 353
11.5.A Solving the Problem 354
11.5.B Rethinking the Problem 354
11.5.C Drawing on Social Support 355
Taking Psychology with You: How Much Control
Do We Have Over Our Emotions and Our Health? 356
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Emotional Support
Animals Reduce Psychological Distress 358
12 Development Over the Lifespan 362
12.1 From Conception Through the First Year 364
12.1.A Prenatal Development 364
12.1.B The Infant’s World 365
Replication Check 367
12.1.C Attachment 368
Revisiting the Classics: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation 369
12.2 Cognitive Development 371
12.2.A Thinking 371
12.2.B Language 375
Replication Check 377
12.3 Moral Development 379
12.3.A Stages of Morality 379
12.3.B Getting Children to Be Good 381
12.4 Gender Development 383
12.4.A Gender Identity 384
12.4.B Influences on Gender Development 386
12.5 Adolescence 389
12.5.A The Physiology of Adolescence 389
12.5.B The Psychology of Adolescence 391
12.6 Adulthood 392
12.6.A Stages and Ages 392
12.6.B The Transitions of Life 394
12.6.C Old Age 395
Taking Psychology with You: Remember That
Development Lasts a Lifetime 397
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: The Marshmallow
Test Predicts Success Later in Life 399
13 Social Psychology 403
13.1 Social Beliefs 405
13.1.A Attributions 405
Replication Check 406
13.1.B Attitudes 408
13.1.C Cognitive Dissonance 409
13.1.D Persuasion or “Brainwashing”? Suicide
Bombers, Cults, and Conspiracy Theorists 410
13.2 Social Forces 411
13.2.A Rules and Roles 412
13.2.B The Power of Situations 414
Replication Check 416
Revisiting the Classics: The Stanford Prison
Experiment 416
13.2.C Why People Obey 417
13.3 Individuals in Groups 419
13.3.A Conformity 419
13.3.B Groupthink 421
13.3.C The Bystander Effect 422
13.3.D Altruism and Dissent 424
Taking Psychology with You: Becoming a More
Conscientious and Engaged Social Being 425
13.4 Us Versus Them: Group Identity and Conflict 426
13.4.A Social Identity 426
13.4.B In-Groups and Out-Groups 427
13.4.C Stereotypes 428
13.5 Prejudice 429
13.5.A The Origins of Prejudice 430
13.5.B Measuring Prejudice 431
13.5.C Reducing Conflict and Prejudice 435
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Police Treat Black
and White Civilians Differently 436
14 Theories of Personality 441
14.1 Psychodynamic Theories of Personality 443
14.1.A Freud and Psychoanalysis 443
14.1.B Other Psychodynamic Approaches 446
14.1.C Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories 447
14.2 The Modern Study of Personality 448
14.2.A Popular Personality Tests 449
Revisiting the Classics: The Myers–Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) 450
14.2.B Core Personality Traits 450
Replication Check 453
14.3 Genetic Influences on Personality 454
14.3.A Heredity and Temperament 454
14.3.B Heredity and Traits 455
Replication Check 456
14.4 Environmental Influences on Personality 457
14.4.A Situations and Social Learning 457
14.4.B Parental Influence—and Its Limits 459
14.4.C The Power of Peers 460
14.5 Cultural Influences on Personality 461
14.5.A Culture, Values, and Traits 461
14.5.B Evaluating Cultural Approaches 463
14.6 The Inner Experience 464
14.6.A Humanist Approaches 464
14.6.B Narrative Approaches 466
14.6.C Evaluating Humanist and Narrative
Approaches 466
Taking Psychology with You: Thinking Scientifically
About Personality 467
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Young People
Today Are More Narcissistic Than Ever 468
15 Psychological Disorders 473
15.1 Diagnosing Mental Disorders 475
15.1.A Dilemmas of Definition 475
15.1.B Dilemmas of Diagnosis 476
Revisiting the Classics: Rosenhan (1973) 480
15.1.C Psychological Assessment 481
15.2 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders 484
15.2.A Depression 484
Replication Check 484
15.2.B Bipolar Disorder 485
15.2.C Origins of Depression 485
Replication Check 486
15.3 Anxiety Disorders 488
15.3.A Anxiety and Panic 488
15.3.B Fears and Phobias 489
15.4 Trauma and Obsessive–Compulsive Disorders 490
15.4.A Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 491
Replication Check 491
15.4.B Obsessions and Compulsions 492
15.5 Personality Disorders 493
15.5.A Borderline Personality Disorder 493
15.5.B Antisocial Personality Disorder 494
15.5.C Psychopathy: Myths and Evidence 495
15.6 Addictive Disorders 497
15.6.A Biology and Addiction 498
15.6.B Learning, Culture, and Addiction 499
15.7 Dissociative Identity Disorder 502
15.7.A A Controversial Diagnosis 502
15.7.B Thinking Critically About DID 503
15.8 Schizophrenia 504
15.8.A Symptoms of Schizophrenia 504
Taking Psychology with You: Thinking More
Clearly About Mental Disorders 506
15.8.B Origins of Schizophrenia 506
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Smartphone
Use Can Become an Addiction 509
16 Approaches to Treatment and
Therapy 513
16.1 Biological Treatments for Mental Disorders 514
16.1.A The Question of Medication 514
16.1.B Direct Brain Intervention 520
Revisiting the Classics: Electroconvulsive Therapy
(ECT) 521
16.2 Major Schools of Psychotherapy 524
16.2.A Psychodynamic Therapy 524
16.2.B Behavior and Cognitive Therapy 524
Replication Check 527
16.2.C Humanist and Existential Therapy 528
16.2.D Family and Couples Therapy 529
16.3 Evaluating Psychotherapy 530
16.3.A The Scientist–Practitioner Gap 531
16.3.B When Therapy Helps 532
16.3.C When Interventions Harm 535
16.3.D Culture and Psychotherapy 537
Taking Psychology with You: Becoming a Smart
Consumer of Psychological Treatments 538
Epilogue: Taking This Text With You 539
Critical Thinking Illustrated: Claim: Learning About
Psychological Methods and Findings Can Make
You a More Effective Person 540
Glossary 543
References 551
Name Index 605
Subject Index 619