Theory, Practice, and Trends in Human Services: An Introduction, Seventh Edition
Edward S. Neukrug
Contents
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Defining the Human Service Professional 1
Who Is the Human Service Professional? 2
Emergence of Human Services 2
Degrees, Curriculum, and Job Titles 3
Job Roles and Functions 4
The Human Services Professional’s Focus in the Change Process 5
Related Mental Health Professionals 6
Counselors 6
Couple, Marriage, and Family Therapists 7
Creative and Expressive Therapists 7
Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurses 7
Psychiatrists 8
Psychologists 8
Psychotherapists 8
Social Workers 9
Other Mental Health Professionals 9
Professional Associations in Human Services
and Related Fields 9
Benefits of Professional Associations 9
The Associations 10
Characteristics of the Effective Human Service Professional 12
Relationship Building 13
Empathy 14
Genuineness 14
Acceptance 14
Cognitive Complexity 15
Wellness 15
Competence 16
Cross-Cultural Sensitivity 16
Final Thoughts 17
Becoming the Effective Helper 17
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues: Knowing Who We Are
and Our Relationship to Other Professional Groups 18
The Effective Human Service Professional: Willing to Meet the Challenge 20
Summary 20
Experiential Exercises 21
Chapter 2 History of and Current Issues in Human Services 27
Change and Paradigm Shifts 28
Psychology, Social Work, and Counseling and Their Impact on Human Services 29
A Brief History of the Psychology Profession 30
A Brief History of the Social Work Profession 32
A Brief History of the Counseling Profession 34
History of the Human Service Profession 36
The Emerging Need for Human Service Practitioners 36
The Development of Associate- and Bachelor-Level Human Service Programs 36
Professional Organizations in Human Services Arise 38
Human Services at the Turn of the 20th Century 38
Current Issues in Human Services 38
Accreditation 39
Credentialing 40
Crisis, Disaster, and Trauma Training 40
Culturally Competent Counseling and Social Justice 40
Ethical Standards 41
Evidence-Based Practice and Common Factors 41
Interprofessional Collaboration 42
Skill Standards 42
Technology in Human Service Work 42
Wellness 42
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues: Continuing Education 43
The Effective Human Service Professional: Anxious About Change,
Desirous of Change, Hopeful 43
Summary 44
Experiential Exercises 44
Chapter 3 Standards in the Profession: Skill Standards, Credentialing,
Program Accreditation, and Ethical Standards 49
Skill Standards 50
Credentialing 52
Certification 52
Licensure 53
Credentialing in the Human Services 53
Credentialing in Related Helping Professions 55
Program Accreditation 56
Ethical Standards 57
The Development and Purposes of Ethical Codes 57
What Is Ethical? A Survey 58
Ethical Decision Making 61
Which Code to Use If Faced with Multiple Codes 62
Best Practices: Avoiding Sanctions and Lawsuits 63
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues: Competence and Qualifications
as a Professional 64
The Effective Human Service Professional: Professionally Committed,
Ethically Assured 65
Summary 65
Experiential Exercises 66
Chapter 4 Theoretical Approaches to Human Service Work 71
Counseling or Psychotherapy? 72
Why Have a Theory? 73
Views of Human Nature 73
Four Conceptual Orientations and Select Theories That Accompany Them 75
Psychodynamic Approaches 75
Existential–Humanistic Approaches 78
Cognitive–Behavioral Approaches 80
Postmodern Approaches 83
Other Theoretical Approaches 84
Brief Counseling Vs. Long-Term Counseling 85
Integrative Approaches to Counseling 86
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues 87
The Importance of Supervision for the Human Service Professional 87
Confidentiality and the Helping Relationship 87
Dual or Multiple Relationships and the Human
Service Professional 88
The Effective Human Service Professional: Committed to Learning
More About Theory Throughout One’s Career 89
Summary 89
Experiential Exercises 90
Chapter 5 The Helping Interview: Skills, Process, and Case Management 93
Creating the Helping Environment 94
Office Environment 94
Personal Characteristics of the Helper 94
Importance of Nonverbal Behavior 95
Counseling Techniques 96
Listening Skills 96
Empathy: A Special Kind of Listening 97
Silence 99
Encouragement and Affirmation 100
Modeling 101
Self-Disclosure 101
The Use of Questions 102
Offering Alternatives, Information Giving, and Advice Giving 104
Confrontation: Support with Challenge 105
Collaboration 106
Using Helping Skills Wisely 106
The Stages of the Helping Relationship 107
Stage 1: Rapport and Trust Building 107
Stage 2: Problem Identification 108
Stage 3: Deepening Understanding and Goal Setting 108
Stage 4: Work 108
Stage 5: Closure 109
Case Management 109
Professional Disclosure Statements and Informed Consent Documents 109
Treatment Planning 110
Diagnosis 110
Psychotropic Medications 111
Case Notes 112
Documenting Client Contact Hours 113
Monitoring, Evaluating, and Documenting
Progress Toward Client Goals 113
Making Referrals 114
Follow-Up 114
Time Management 115
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues 115
Primary Obligation: Client, Agency, or Society? 115
Confidentiality of Records and Clients’ Rights
to View Their Records 116
Exceptions to Confidentiality 116
Security of Case Notes 116
The Effective Human Service Professional:
Looking for Feedback from Others 117
Summary 117
Experiential Exercises 118
Chapter 6 Development of the Person 126
Defining Development 127
Emotional, Physical, and Cognitive Growth
in Childhood 128
The Development of Knowing: Cognitive and Moral Changes 129
Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development 129
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 130
Gilligan’s Theory of Women’s Moral Development 132
Knowledge of Child Development: Applications for the
Human Service Professional 132
Personality Development 133
Freud’s Psychosexual Model of Development 133
Learning Theory 135
Humanistic Theory 137
Postmodernism and Social Constructionism 138
Knowledge of Personality Development: Applications
for the Human Service Professional 138
Lifespan Development Theories 140
Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 140
Robert Kegan’s Constructive Model of Development 141
Knowledge of Lifespan Development: Applications for the
Human Service Professional 143
Comparison of Developmental Models 143
Normal and Abnormal (Atypical) Development 144
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues: Understanding Our Clients’
Developmental Journey 145
The Effective Human Service Professional: Constantly Changing,
Constantly Examining 145
Summary 146
Experiential Exercises 147
Chapter 7 Couples, Family, and Group Helping 152
General Systems Theory and Cybernetics 153
Understanding and Working with Couples and Families 156
A Brief History of Family Counseling and Family Therapy 156
Healthy Couples and Families 157
Dysfunctional Couples and Families 158
Situational and Developmental Stress in Couples and Families 159
Family Guidance, Family Counseling, and the Role of the
Human Service Professional 159
Individual Counseling Versus Family Counseling 160
Understanding and Working with Groups 160
A Brief History of Group Work 160
Defining Self-Help, Psychoeducational, and Counseling
and Therapy Groups 161
Group Membership Behavior 163
Group Leadership Styles 164
Stages of Group Development 164
Individual Counseling Versus Group Counseling 167
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues 167
Confidentiality in Couples, Families, and Groups 167
Training and Competence 168
The Effective Human Service Professional: Using a Systems
Approach to Understand the Complexity of Interrelationships 168
Summary 168
Experiential Exercises 170
Chapter 8 Organizational and Community Change and the
Role of Consultation and Supervision 175
Community Change Efforts: Understanding the System and Steps for Change 176
Agencies: A Systemic Perspective 178
Consultation 180
Consultation Defined 180
Consultation at Agencies 181
Supervision 183
Administrative Supervision 183
Counseling Supervision 183
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues 186
Confidentiality in Agencies 186
Confidentiality when Conducting Consultation and Supervision 187
Training and Competence 187
The Effective Human Service Professional: Seeking Consultation and
Supervision and Working with the System 187
Summary 188
Experiential Exercises 189
Chapter 9 Culturally Competent Helping 193
Cultural Diversity in the United States and Globally 194
The Changing Face of America 196
The Need for Cultural Competence 197
Defining Culturally Competent Helping 199
Becoming Culturally Sensitive: Knowledge of Words
and Terms 200
Culture 200
Discrimination and Microaggression 201
Ethnicity 201
Gender Identity and Gender Expression 201
Intersectionality 201
Minority and Nondominant Group 202
Power Differentials 202
Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Racism 202
Privilege 203
Race 203
Religion and Spirituality 203
Sexism, Heterosexism, and Sexual Prejudice 204
Sexual Orientation and Romantic Attractions 204
Social Class (“Class”) 205
Political Correctness, or, “Oh My god, What Do I Call
Them (or They)?” 205
Developing Cultural Competence: The Multicultural
and Social Justice Counseling Competencies 205
Domain I: Self-Awareness 206
Domain II: Client Worldview 208
Domain III: Helping Relationship 208
Domain IV: Helping and Advocacy Interventions 209
Power and Privilege within the Helping Relationship 210
Applying 12 Attributes of Effective Cross-Cultural Helping 210
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues: The Client’s Right to
Culturally Competent Counseling 211
The Effective Human Service Professional: Open to the Continual
Development of a Multicultural Perspective 212
Summary 212
Experiential Exercises 213
Chapter 10 Working with Varied Client Populations 218
Working with Diverse Clients 219
Helping Clients from Diverse Cultural/Racial/Ethnic Groups 219
Helping Individuals from Varied Religious Backgrounds 220
Helping Women 221
Helping Men 223
Helping Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals 225
Helping Those Who Are Hungry, Homeless, and the Poor 226
Helping Older Persons 228
Helping Children 229
Helping Individuals Who Are HIV Positive 231
Helping the Chronically Mentally Ill 232
Helping Individuals with Substance Abuse 234
Helping Individuals with Disabilities 235
Helping Individuals Experiencing a Crisis, Disaster, or Trauma 236
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues: Competence
and On-the-Job Learning 238
The Effective Human Service Professional:
Open to Continued Learning about New Clients 239
Summary 239
Experiential Exercises 240
Chapter 11 Research, Evaluation, and Assessment 244
Research 245
Conducting Research 245
The Hypothesis, the Research Question, and Literature Review 246
Defining Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs 247
Quantitative Research 247
Qualitative Research 249
Results of Research 252
Discussing the Results 254
Using Research in Human Service Work 255
Evaluation and Needs Assessment 255
Evaluation 255
Needs Assessment 256
The Human Service Professional’s Use of Evaluation 256
Assessment and Testing 257
Defining Assessment 257
Types of Assessment Techniques 258
Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, Standardized,
and Nonstandardized Assessment 263
Basic Test Statistics 264
Test Worthiness 265
The Human Service Professional’s Use of Assessment Techniques 266
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues 267
Informed Consent 267
Use of Human Subjects 267
Proper Interpretation and Use of Test Data 268
The Effective Human Service Professional: Understanding the Changing
Face of Research, Program Evaluation, and Assessment 268
Summary 268
Experiential Exercises 270
Chapter 12 Career Development Processes and Resources:
Your Future in the Human Services 274
The Importance of Work in One’s Career Development 275
Career Development Models: A Brief Overview 276
Trait-and-Factor Approach 276
Career Psychodynamic Theory 277
Career Developmental Theories 277
Social Cognitive Career Theory 278
John Holland’s Personality Theory of Occupational Choice 279
Choosing a Career: A Self-Analysis 281
Finding a Job 282
Gathering Information 282
The Application Process 282
The Résumé 283
The Portfolio 283
Professional Associations and Networking 284
Informational Interviews 284
Responding to Ads in Professional Publications and Online 284
Interviewing at National Conferences 285
College and University Job Placement Services 285
Other Job-Finding Methods 285
Applying to Graduate School 285
Gathering Information 285
Bachelor and Graduate Program Resources 286
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues 287
Being Chosen and Being Denied for a Job or a Graduate Program 287
Optimizing Your Clients’ Career Process 287
Know Your Laws 288
The Effective Human Service Professional: Viewing Career
Development As a Lifespan Process 288
Summary 289
Experiential Exercises 289
Appendix A Specific Diagnostic Categories 295
Appendix B Consultation at a Mental Health Center 299
Appendix C Privilege Exercise 303
Glossary 304
References 327
Name Index 344
Subject Index 351