Crisis Assessment, Intervention, and Prevention, Fourth Edition
Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry and Bradley T. Erford
CONTENTS
About the Editors xxiv
About the Contributing Authors xxvi
Part I Elements of Crisis Intervention
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Crisis Intervention 1
Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry, Jason M. McGlothlin,
and Bradley T. Erford
Preview 1
Key Terms and Concepts Related to Crisis 1
What Is a Crisis? 2
Stress 4
Trauma 5
Responses to Trauma 5
Coping 6
Adaptation 7
Resilience 8
Crisis Intervention and Traditional Counseling 10
Trauma-Informed Care 12
Roles of and Collaboration Among Mental Health Workers During
a Crisis 12
Professional Counselors 12
Psychiatrists 14
Social Workers 14
Paraprofessionals 14
Hotline Workers 16
Collaboration Among Crisis Workers 16
Collaboration with Other Professionals 16
Impact of COVID-19 16
Approaches to Working with Clients in Crisis 17
Crisis Intervention Theory 19
The Genesis of Crisis Intervention in the United States 19
Applied Crisis Theory 21
The Task Model of Crisis Assessment and Intervention 22
Four Essential Crisis Assessment Tasks 22
Four Essential Crisis Intervention Tasks 26
Other Models of Crisis Assessment and Intervention 36
The ABC-X and Double ABC-X Models of Crisis 36
Elements of Stress and Crisis Theory 38
Ecological and Contextual Considerations 40
Summary 44
Chapter 2 Safety Concerns in Crisis Situations 45
James Jackson, Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry, Latofia Parker,
and Bradley T. Erford
Preview 45
The Importance of Proactive Approaches to Safety 45
Collaboration and Crisis Management 46
Safety Issues 47
High-Risk Clients 47
Physical Safety 48
Individual Clients in Crisis 50
Special Issues Related to Safety and the Counselor 53
Trauma-Informed Treatment 55
Counselors Most at Risk 55
Stalking 56
In-Home Counseling 56
Research and Recommendations on Client Violence 58
Summary 61
Chapter 3 Ethical and Legal Considerations in Crisis Counseling 63
Paul F. Hard, Laura L. Talbott-Forbes, Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry,
and Bradley T. Erford
Preview 63
Prevention Considerations 64
Wellness 64
Continuing Education 65
Peer Supervision and Consultation 65
Ethical Decision-Making Models 66
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 67
What Is HIPAA? 68
How HIPAA Affects Crisis Counseling 70
Family Education Rights and Privacy Act 72
What Is FERPA? 72
How FERPA Affects Crisis Counseling 75
The Application of HIPAA and FERPA to College
and University Student Records 77
The Tarasoff v. Regents Decision 79
What Was the Effect of Tarasoff v. Regents? 79
How Tarasoff v. Regents Affects Crisis Counseling 81
Special Considerations Related to Crises 82
Negligence and Malpractice 83
Documentation and Record Keeping 84
Informed Consent 86
Confidentiality 87
Termination in Crisis Intervention 89
Spiritual and Multicultural Considerations 92
Crisis Intervention in a Technological World 93
Summary 97
Chapter 4 Essential Crisis Intervention Skills 99
Bradley T. Erford and Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry
Preview 99
Essential Crisis Intervention Microskills 99
Attending Skills 101
Eye Contact 101
Body Position 102
Vocal Tone 103
Silence 104
The Basic Listening Sequence 106
Asking Open and Closed Questions 106
Reflecting Skills 111
Deescalating Client Emotions 119
Types of Aggression 120
Handling Aggression 121
Defusing Through Reflection 121
Summary 122
Chapter 5 Loss, Grief, and Bereavement 123
Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry and Bradley T. Erford
Preview 123
Historical and Current Perspectives and Models
of Grief Work 123
Lindemann’s Approach 124
The Death Awareness Movement: Kübler-Ross 125
Worden’s Task Model of Grieving 127
Attachment and Loss 128
Understanding Grief 129
Cultural Factors in Grieving 129
Ambiguous Loss and Disenfranchised Grief 130
Mediators of the Grief Process 133
Relationship: The Role of the Person Who Died 133
Cause of Death 136
Normal versus Complicated Bereavement and the DSM-5-TR 137
Interventions for Grief and Loss 139
Restoring Life’s Meaning 140
COVID-19 and Other Pandemics 143
Interventions 144
Group Support 146
Working with Children 147
Family Interventions 151
Difficulties in Grief Counseling 151
Withdrawal 152
Counseling the Crisis Counselor 154
Effective Death Notifications 154
In Person and in Pairs 156
In Time and with Accurate Information 156
In Plain Language 158
With Compassion 159
Follow-Up 159
Debriefing with Team Members 160
Summary 161
Part II Special Issues in Crisis Intervention
Chapter 6 Risk Assessment and Intervention: Suicide, Nonsuicidal
Self-Injury, and Homicide 163
Judith Harrington, Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry, and Bradley T. Erford
Preview 163
Prevalence and Rates of Suicide, Homicide, and Nonsuicidal Self-Injury 164
Suicide Terminology 166
Risk Factors, Protective Factors, and Warning Signs 167
Risk Factors 167
Protective Factors 169
Warning Signs 170
Acute versus Chronic Suicide Risk 170
Level of Suicidal Risk 172
Effective Questions and Assessment Strategies for
Suicide Intervention 177
Question-Tree Approach for Suicide Assessment:
Essential Questions 178
Suicide Lethality Assessments 180
Treatment Planning and Care Management with a Suicidal Client 182
Safety Plan 182
Outpatient and Inpatient Treatment Decisions
and Management 185
Postvention 187
Nonsuicidal Self-Injury 190
Assessments and Q-Tree 191
Treatment Approaches 193
Homicide 194
Legal Issues 195
Assessment of Homicide: Risk Factors 196
School Homicide and Violence 197
Workplace Violence and Homicide 200
Threat Level Assessment 201
Referral 204
Treatment Options 205
Needs of Survivors of Homicide Loss 207
Summary 212
Chapter 7 Understanding and Treating Substance Use Disorders with
Clients in Crisis 215
Bradley T. Erford and Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry
Preview 215
Substance Use and Society 216
Classification of Drugs 216
Research on Substance Use, Crisis, and Society 217
The Etiology and Risk Factors of Substance Use
and Dependence 219
Factors That Increase Risk for Substance Use Disorders 219
Screening, Assessment, and Diagnosis of Substance
Use Disorders 220
Screening 220
Commonly Used Assessment Instruments 221
Assessment 222
Diagnosis 225
Assessing a Client’s Readiness to Change 226
Treatment Admission and Placement 228
Substance Use Treatment and Crisis 230
Relapse and Crisis 237
Harm Reduction 238
Support Groups 239
Marital and Family Treatment 240
Co-occurring Disorders and Crisis 240
Multicultural Perspectives, Substance Use, and Crisis 242
Overview of the Elements of Crisis Intervention Related
to Substance Use 244
Safety and Self-Care 245
Diagnostic Considerations During a Crisis 247
Essential Substance Use–Specific Crisis Intervention Skills 247
Summary 248
Chapter 8 Intimate Partner Violence and Domestic Violence 251
Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry and Bradley Erford
Preview 251
Overview of Intimate Partner Violence and Domestic Violence 252
Cycle of Violence Theory 253
Phase 1: Tension-Building 254
Phase 2: The Acute Battering Incident 254
Phase 3: The Honeymoon Phase 254
Helpful Models for Understanding IPV/DV 255
Common Crisis Issues 257
Attending to Physical Injury 257
Establishing Immediate Safety 258
Reporting Intimate Partner Violence to the Police 258
Intimate Partner Violence in Special Populations 260
Race and Ethnicity 260
Socioeconomic Status 261
Immigrant Status 261
Religious and Spiritual Beliefs 262
Female-to-Male Violence 262
LGBTQ+ Violence 262
Disability Status 264
Elder Abuse 264
Dating Violence among Adolescents and Young Adults 265
The Counselor’s Response to Intimate Partner Violence
Clients in Crisis 266
Screening for Intimate Partner Violence 266
Question Tree Screening Approach 269
Response to Intimate Partner Violence Disclosure 270
Safety Planning and Harm Reduction Planning 271
Intimate Partner Violence Shelters: Opportunities
and Challenges 273
Addressing the Emotional Impact of Intimate
Partner Violence 273
COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts on IPV/DV 276
Batterer Intervention 277
Safety 277
Cessation of Violence 277
Accountability 278
Challenges to Referrals to Batterer
Intervention Programs 278
Financial Resources 279
Completion Rates 279
Assessing Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence 279
Personal Safety 280
Summary 282
Chapter 9 Sexual Violence 285
Robin Lee and Jennifer Jordan
Preview 285
Sexual Violence, Sexual Assault, and Rape 286
Penetration 287
Noncontact Unwanted Sexual Experiences 288
Consent 288
Sexual Assault and Rape 288
Sexual Assault 289
Rape 289
Rape Myths 294
Victim versus Survivor 296
Other Types of Sexual Violence 296
Sexual Harassment 297
Stalking 297
Human Trafficking 297
Sexual Violence and School-Age Children 299
Effects of Sexual Violence 301
Physical Effects of Sexual Violence 302
Cognitive-Behavioral Effects of Sexual Violence 302
Emotional and Psychological Effects of Sexual Violence 302
Sexual Assault and Current Issues 306
Medical and Law Enforcement Involvement with Individuals
Who Experience Sexual Violence 307
Medical Examinations 308
Law Enforcement Involvement 309
Treatment of Individuals Who Experience Sexual Violence 309
Short-Term/Immediate Interventions 310
Long-Term Interventions 312
Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches 313
Anxiety Management Training Programs 315
Other Approaches to Trauma Treatment 316
Spiritual and Multicultural Issues in Sexual Violence and Assault 318
Spirituality and Religious Issues Related to Sexual Violence
and Assault 319
Multicultural Issues and Victims with Special Needs 320
LGBTQ+ Victims of Sexual Violence 321
Perpetrators of Sexual Violence 323
The Motivators of Rape 323
Treatment of Sex Offenders 324
Recidivism Rates of Adult Sex Offenders 327
Sex Offender Registry 328
Treatment of Juvenile Sex Offenders 329
Summary 331
Chapter 10 Child Sexual Abuse 333
Carrie Wachter Morris
Preview 333
Prevalence and Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse 334
Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse 334
Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse 336
Defining Child Sexual Abuse and Related Terms 337
Definitions of Child Sexual Abuse 337
Statutory Rape 338
The Cycle of Child Sexual Abuse 338
Signs and Symptoms of Child Sexual Abuse 339
Intervention Strategies for Victims of Child Sexual Abuse 341
Initial Disclosure and Interviewing for Child Sexual Abuse 341
Collecting Information for an Initial Report of Child
Sexual Abuse 346
Forensic Child Sexual Abuse Interviews 347
Reporting Child Sexual Abuse 349
Reporting Past Incidents of Child Sexual Abuse 350
Treatment of Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse 350
Child Sexual Abuse Coping Strategies and Their Impact
on Treatment 353
Perpetrators of Child Sexual Abuse 354
The Characteristics of Child Sexual Abuse Perpetrators 354
Treatment of Adult Sex Offenders 357
Treatment of Adolescent Sex Offenders 359
Overview of the Elements of Crisis Intervention Related to Child
Sexual Abuse 361
Safety 361
Diagnostic Considerations during a Crisis 361
Essential Child Sexual Abuse–Specific Crisis
Intervention Skills 362
Summary 363
Chapter 11 Military and First Responder Populations 365
Seth C. W. Hayden and Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry
Preview 365
Military Personnel and Their Families 366
Military Culture 367
Mental Health and Military Stigmatization 368
The Cycle of Deployment 369
The Physical and Emotional Effects of War-Zone Deployment 370
Separation from the Military and Mental Health Issues 371
Issues for Military Families Related to Deployment 372
Familial Stress Associated with Deployment 372
Reunification 373
Counselor Intervention with Military Service Members 373
Interventions for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 374
Traumatic Brain Injury 376
Suicide Risk Assessment 377
Supporting Military Families 377
The Spiritual and Religious Needs of Deployed Military
Service Members 378
Special Risks First Responders Face 380
Law Enforcement Officers 381
Stressors of Law Enforcement Officers 382
Emergency Medical Services Professionals 388
Stressors of Emergency Medical Services Professionals 389
Firefighters 391
Stressors of Firefighters 391
Crisis Intervention with First Responders 392
Psychological First Aid 392
Critical Incident Stress Management 393
Other Crisis Interventions 394
Summary 396
Chapter 12 Emergency Preparedness and Response in the Community
and Workplace 399
Jason M. McGlothlin
Preview 399
Leadership Roles in a Multidisciplinary Crisis Response Team 399
Natural Disasters 402
Types of Natural Disasters 402
Responses to Natural Disasters 403
Natural Disaster Counseling Using Telehealth 410
Terrorism 410
Interventions After a Disaster or Act of Terrorism 412
Riots 416
Hostage Situations 418
Resources for Additional Study and Training on Community
and Workplace Crises 422
Summary 423
Chapter 13 Emergency Preparedness and Response in Schools
and Universities 425
Bradley T. Erford and Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry
Preview 425
Characteristics of School and University Crises 425
Mitigation and Prevention 427
Crisis Planning and Preparedness 429
Establishing a Crisis Team 430
Taking Steps to Prepare for a Crisis 431
Developing a Written Crisis Plan 432
Establishing Lockdown Protocols 435
Establishing Evacuation Protocols 436
Establishing Communication and Other Protocols 437
Response 438
Recovery 440
Helping Students 441
Helping Parents/Guardians 442
Notifying Students of a Death, Accident, or Event 447
Debriefing 449
Specific Guidance Related to Responding to Crises In
University Settings 450
Shelter-in-Place 451
Threat Assessment Teams 453
Campus Assessment Response and Evaluation and Other
University Crisis Response Teams 453
Summary 456
Chapter 14 Counselor Self-Care in Crisis Situations 457
James Jackson, Lisa R. Jackson-Cherry, and Bradley T. Erford
Preview 457
Counselor Self-Care Is Essential 457
Ongoing Self-Assessment for Counselors 458
Self-Assessment of the Counselor during Crises 459
Counter transference 461
Burnout 461
Compassion Fatigue 463
Vicarious Trauma 464
Vicarious Resiliency 466
Self-Care Strategies 468
Emphasizing Self-Care in Counselor Training Programs 468
Supervision and Self-Care 471
Overview of the Elements of Crisis Intervention Related
to Self-Care 476
Summary 478
References 481
Index 503