Educational Psychology: Active Learning Edition, Fifteenth Edition
Anita Woolfolk and Ellen L. Usher
Contents
Preface vi
PART I SETTING THE STAGE, MEETING THE PLAYERS
Cluster 1
Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 2
Teachers’ Casebook—Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would You Do? 2
Overview and Objectives 3
Learning and Teaching Today 4
Inside Three Classrooms 5
A MULTILINGUAL FIRST GRADE 5 • A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE 5 • TEACHING MATH
TO STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES 5
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology 6
Confidence in Every Context 7
High Expectations for Teachers and Students 8
Teaching the Whole Child: Social and Emotional Learning 8
RESEARCH ON SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING 9 • PATHS: AN APPROACH TO SOCIAL
AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING 9 • LIVING WITH SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL TRAUMA 10
Do Teachers Make a Difference? 10
TEACHER–STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS 11 • THE COST OF POOR TEACHING 11
What Is Good Teaching? 12
Models of Good Teaching 12
DANIELSON’S FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 12 • TEACHINGWORKS 13 • THE CLASS
MODEL 13
Beginning Teachers 15
Module 1 Summary 16
The Role of Educational Psychology 18
Educational Psychology Today 18
Is It Just Common Sense? 18
LEARNING STYLES 19 • ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH 19 • SKIPPING GRADES 19 •
ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH 19 • STUDENTS IN CONTROL 19 • ANSWER BASED ON
RESEARCH 19 • OBVIOUS ANSWERS? 20
Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning 20
CORRELATION STUDIES 20 • EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 21 • ABAB EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS 22 • SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES 22 •
CLINICAL INTERVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES 22 • ETHNOGRAPHY 23 • THE ROLE OF TIME IN
RESEARCH 23 • WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 23 •
MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 23 • TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS 24
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? 25
Theories for Teaching 26
Supporting Student Learning 27
Module 2 Summary 29
Key Terms 30
Connect and Extend to Licensure 30
Teachers’ Casebook—Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would They Do? 31
Cluster 2
Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 34
Teachers’ Casebook—Conversations About Race: What Would You Do? 34
Overview and Objectives 35
Education Is Cultural 37
What Is Culture? 37
Your Cultural and Educational History 39
Meet Two Students 41
Cultural Intersections and Terminology 42
INTERSECTIONALITY 42 • CULTURAL GROUPS AND TERMINOLOGY 42
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 43
STEREOTYPES: THE GOOD AND THE BAD 43 • FROM STEREOTYPES TO PREJUDICE 44 •
STEREOTYPE THREAT 45 • FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION 46
Module 3 Summary 47
Economic and Social Class Differences 47
Social Class and Socioeconomic Status 48
Poverty and Social Inequality 49
Poverty and Academic Outcomes 50
HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT, AND STRESS 51 • LOW EXPECTATIONS—LOW ACADEMIC SELFCONCEPT
52 • PEER INFLUENCES AND RESISTANCE CULTURES 52 • HOME ENVIRONMENT AND
RESOURCES 53 • SUMMER SETBACKS AND SCHOOL DISRUPTIONS 53 • TRACKING AND POOR
TEACHING 54
Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students 54
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty 55
Module 4 Summary 56
Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning 56
Defining Ethnicity and Race 56
Ethnic and Racial Identity 57
MULTIDIMENSIONAL AND FLEXIBLE ETHNIC IDENTITIES 57 • RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 58
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement 59
The Legacy of Racial Inequality 62
RACISM AND DISCRIMINATION 63
Module 5 Summary 64
Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning 64
Sex and Gender 65
Gender Identity 65
Gender Roles 66
Gender Bias and Sexism in Curriculum and Media 67
Gender Bias in Teaching 68
GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 69
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently? 70
Sexual Orientation 72
Discrimination Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation 73
Module 6 Summary 74
Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms 75
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 76
Diversity in Learning 77
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 77 • CULTURAL VALUES AND LEARNING
PREFERENCES 77 • SOCIOLINGUISTICS 78 • CULTURAL DISCONTINUITY 79
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 79
KNOW YOURSELF 79
GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching 80
KNOW YOUR STUDENTS 81 • RESPECT YOUR STUDENTS 81 • TEACH YOUR STUDENTS 81
Module 7 Summary 82
Key Terms 82
Connect and Extend to Licensure 83
Teachers’ Casebook—Conversations About Race: What Would They Do? 83
PART II DEVELOPMENT: SIMILARITIES AND
DIFFERENCES
Cluster 3
Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do? 86
Overview and Objectives 87
A Definition of Development 88
Three Questions Across the Theories 89
WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE 89 • WHAT IS THE
SHAPE OF DEVELOPMENT? CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY 90 • TIMING: IS IT TOO
LATE? CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE PERIODS 90 • BEWARE OF EITHER/OR 90
General Principles of Development 90
The Brain and Cognitive Development 91
The Developing Brain: Neurons 91
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 94
Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence 95
Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works 96
CULTURE AND BRAIN PLASTICITY 97
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education 98
Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 99
DOES INSTRUCTION AFFECT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT? 100 • THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO
READ 100 • EMOTIONS, LEARNING, AND THE BRAIN 100
Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 101
Module 8 Summary 102
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 103
Influences on Development 104
Basic Tendencies in Thinking 104
ORGANIZATION 104 • ADAPTATION 104 • EQUILIBRATION 105
Four Stages of Cognitive Development 105
INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 106 • EARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY
YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 107 • LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS:
THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE 108
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Helping Families Care for
Preoperational Children 108
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 110
HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE: FORMAL OPERATIONS 111 • DO WE ALL REACH THE FOURTH
STAGE? 112
GUIDELINES: Helping Students Use Formal Operations 113
Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory 113
THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES 113 • UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES 114 •
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURE 114
Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive
Development 115
Module 9 Summary 115
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 116
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 117
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 118
TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE 119 • PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS 119
The Roles of Language and Private Speech 119
PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED 120
The Zone of Proximal Development 121
PRIVATE SPEECH AND THE ZONE 121 • THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT 122
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 122
Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers 122
Piaget: What Can We Learn? 122
UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING 123 • ACTIVITY AND CONSTRUCTING
KNOWLEDGE 123
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 124
THE ROLE OF ADULTS AND PEERS 124 • ASSISTED LEARNING 124
An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind 125
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” 125
GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 126
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 127
Module 10 Summary 127
Key Terms 128
Connect and Extend to Licensure 129
Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do? 129
Cluster 4
The Self, Social, and Moral Development 132
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 132
Overview and Objectives 133
Physical Development 134
Physical and Motor Development 135
YOUNG CHILDREN 135 • ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS 135
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom 135
THE ADOLESCENT YEARS 136 • EARLY AND LATER MATURING 136
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 137
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY 138 • EXERCISE AND RECESS 138
Reaching Every Student: Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities 139
Challenges in Physical Development 139
OBESITY 139 • BODY IMAGE AND DISORDERED EATING 140
GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents 141
Module 11 Summary 142
Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 142
The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model 142
Families 144
PARENTING STYLES 144 • CULTURE AND PARENTING 145 • ATTACHMENT 145
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Connecting with Families 146
DIVORCE 146
GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce 147
Peers 148
CLIQUES 148 • CROWDS 148 • PEER CULTURES 148 • FRIENDSHIPS 148 •
POPULARITY 149 • WHO IS LIKELY TO HAVE PROBLEMS WITH PEERS? 150 •
AGGRESSION 150 • RELATIONAL AGGRESSION 151 • MEDIA, MODELING, AND
AGGRESSION 151 • VIDEO GAMES AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR 151
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 152
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 152
ACADEMIC AND PERSONAL CARING 153 • SUPPORTING SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING 153
Teachers and Child Abuse 155
MANDATED REPORTING 155 • WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO? 155
Module 12 Summary 157
Identity and Self-Concept 158
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development 158
THE PRESCHOOL YEARS: TRUST, AUTONOMY, AND INITIATIVE 159 • THE ELEMENTARY AND
MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY 159
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry 161
ADOLESCENCE: THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY 162 • IDENTITY AND TECHNOLOGY 163 •
BEYOND THE SCHOOL YEARS 163
GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation 164
RACIAL AND ETHNIC PRIDE 165
Self-Concept 165
THE STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT 165 • HOW SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS 166 •
SELF-CONCEPT AND ACHIEVEMENT 167
Sex Differences in the Self-Concept of Academic Competence 167
Self-Esteem 168
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 168
THE DANGERS OF PERFECTIONISM 169
Module 13 Summary 170
Understanding Others and Moral Development 170
Theory of Mind and Intention 171
Moral Development 171
KOHLBERG’S THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT 171 • CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG’S
THEORY 172
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices 173
MORAL VERSUS CONVENTIONAL DOMAINS 173 • IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS 174
Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology 175
Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating 176
WHO CHEATS? 176 • DEALING WITH CHEATING 177
Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 178
Module 14 Summary 178
Key Terms 179
Connect and Extend to Licensure 180
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do? 181
Cluster 5
Learner Differences and Learning Needs 184
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would You Do? 184
Overview and Objectives 185
Language and Labeling 187
Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps 187
Person-First/Identity-First Language 188
Possible Biases in the Application of Labels 189
Intelligence 189
What Does Intelligence Mean? 189
INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY? 190
Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 190
WHAT ARE THESE INTELLIGENCES? 191 • CRITICS OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
THEORY 191 • GARDNER RESPONDS 192
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 193
Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence 193
Neuroscience and Intelligence 194
Measuring Intelligence 194
BINET’S DILEMMA 194 • WHAT DOES AN IQ SCORE MEAN? 195 • GROUP VERSUS INDIVIDUAL IQ
TESTS 195 • THE FLYNN EFFECT: ARE WE GETTING SMARTER? 195
GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores 196
INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT 196
Sex Differences in Intelligence and Achievement 197
HEREDITY OR ENVIRONMENT? 198
Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ 198
Emotional Intelligence 198
WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE? 199
Module 15 Summary 200
Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters 201
Assessing Creativity 202
OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter? 203
What Are the Sources of Creativity? 203
CREATIVITY AND COGNITION 204 • CREATIVITY AND DIVERSITY 204
Creativity in the Classroom 204
GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity 205
Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution 207
Learning Styles/Preferences 207
CAUTIONS ABOUT LEARNING STYLES 207 • WHY ARE LEARING STYLES/PREFERENCES SO
POPULAR? 208
Beyond Either/Or 208
Module 16 Summary 208
Individual Differences and the Law 209
IDEA 209
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT 210 • INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM 210 •
THE RIGHTS OF STUDENTS AND FAMILIES 211
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences 211
Section 504 Protections 212
Response to Intervention 213
Module 17 Summary 214
Students with Learning Challenges 215
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 215
Students with Specific Learning Disabilities 216
STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS 217 • TEACHING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES 218
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders 219
DEFINITIONS 219 • TREATING ADHD WITH DRUGS 220
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD? 220
ALTERNATIVES/ADDITIONS TO DRUG TREATMENTS 221
Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD 221
Students with Communication Impairments 222
SPEECH IMPAIRMENTS 222 • LANGUAGE DISORDERS 223
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 223
TRAUMA 224
GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems 225
DEATH BY SUICIDE 227 • SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER 227 • PREVENTION 228 •
THE STIGMA OF MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES 228
Students with Intellectual Disabilities 229
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities 230
Students with Health and Sensory Impairments 230
CEREBRAL PALSY AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 230 • SEIZURE DISORDERS (EPILEPSY) 231 •
OTHER SERIOUS HEALTH CONCERNS: ASTHMA, SICKLE CELL DISEASE, AND DIABETES 232 •
STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS 232 • STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF 233
Autism Spectrum Disorders 233
INTERVENTIONS 234
Module 18 Summary 234
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 236
Who Are These Students? 236
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF THESE GIFTS 237 • WHAT PROBLEMS DO STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED
FACE? 237
Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 238
RECOGNIZING GIFTS AND TALENTS 238
Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents 240
ACCELERATION 240 • METHODS AND STRATEGIES 240
Module 19 Summary 240
Key Terms 241
Connect and Extend to Licensure 241
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would They Do? 242
Cluster 6
Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant
Education 246
Teachers’ Casebook—Communicating and Creating Community in the
Classroom: What Would You Do? 246
Overview and Objectives 247
The Development of Language 249
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 249
THE PUZZLE OF LANGUAGE 249
When and How Does Language Develop? 250
SOUNDS AND PRONUNCIATION 250 • VOCABULARY AND MEANING 250 • GRAMMAR
AND SYNTAX 252 • PRAGMATICS: USING LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS 252 •
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS 252
Emergent Literacy 253
BUILDING A FOUNDATION 253 • WHEN PROBLEMS PERSIST 254
Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity 254
LANGUAGES AND EMERGENT LITERACY 254 • BILINGUAL EMERGENT LITERACY 255
GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy 255
Diversity in Language Development 256
Dual-Language Development 256
SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING 257 • BENEFITS OF BILINGUALISM 257 •
LANGUAGE LOSS 258
Signed Languages 259
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 259
Basic Communication and Academic Language 260
GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning 262
Dialect Differences in the Classroom 263
Dialects 263
DIALECTS AND PRONUNCIATIONS 263 • DIALECTS AND TEACHING 264
Genderlects 264
Module 20 Summary 265
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners 266
Immigrants and Refugees 267
Classrooms Today 268
Four Student Profiles 268
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 269
Bilingual Education and English Learners 270
TWO APPROACHES TO LEARNING ENGLISH 270
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach English Learners? 270
RESEARCH ON BILINGUAL EDUCATION 272 • VISUAL STRATEGIES 272 • LITERATURE RESPONSE
GROUPS 272 • BILINGUALISM FOR ALL: TWO-WAY IMMERSION 272
Sheltered Instruction 274
Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 274
DEALING WITH TRAUMA 276
Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture 278
GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for
Students Who Are ELs 278
FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE AND WELCOME CENTERS 279 • STUDENT-LED CONFERENCES 280
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Welcoming All Families 280
Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts 281
Students Who Are English Learners with Disabilities 281
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students 282
Module 21 Summary 283
Key Terms 284
Connect and Extend to Licensure 285
Teachers’ Casebook—Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom:
What Would They Do? 285
PART III LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
Cluster 7
Behavioral Views of Learning 288
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would You Do? 288
Overview and Objectives 289
Understanding Learning 291
Ethical Issues 292
GOALS 292 • STRATEGIES 292
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 292
Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning 293
GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning 295
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 296
Types of Consequences 296
REINFORCEMENT 296 • PUNISHMENT 297
Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment 298
Reinforcement Schedules 299
EXTINCTION 300
Antecedents and Behavior Change 300
EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION DELIVERY 301 • CUEING 301
Module 22 Summary 301
Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis 302
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 303
REINFORCING WITH TEACHER ATTENTION 303 • SELECTING REINFORCERS: THE PREMACK
PRINCIPLE 304
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning—Using Praise Appropriately 304
SHAPING 305
Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences 306
CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS 306
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning—Encouraging Positive Behaviors 307
TOKEN REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS 308 • GROUP CONSEQUENCES 309
Handling Undesirable Behavior 310
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT 311 • POSITIVE PRACTICE
OVERCORRECTION 311 • REPRIMANDS 311 • RESPONSE COST 312 • SOCIAL
ISOLATION 312 • SOME CAUTIONS ABOUT PUNISHMENT 312
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning—Using Punishment 313
Module 23 Summary 314
Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports,
and Self-Management 315
Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments 316
Reaching Every Student: Positive Behavior Supports 317
Self-Management 318
GOAL SETTING 318 • MONITORING AND EVALUATING PROGRESS 318 •
SELF-REINFORCEMENT 319
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Applying Operant Conditioning:
Student Self-Management 319
Challenges and Criticisms 320
Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning 320
ENACTIVE AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 320 • LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE 320
Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 321
Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 321
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? 322
Module 24 Summary 323
Key Terms 324
Connect and Extend to Licensure 325
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do? 325
Cluster 8
Cognitive Views of Learning 328
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do? 328
Overview and Objectives 329
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 330
The Brain and Cognitive Learning 330
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 331
GENERAL AND SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE 332 • DECLARATIVE, PROCEDURAL, AND
SELF-REGULATORY KNOWLEDGE 332
Cognitive Views of Memory 332
Sensory Memory 333
CAPACITY, DURATION, AND CONTENTS OF SENSORY MEMORY 334 • PERCEPTION 335 •
THE ROLE OF ATTENTION 335 • ATTENTION AND MULTITASKING 337
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Multitasking? 337
ATTENTION AND TEACHING 338
GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 339
Working Memory 340
A MODEL OF WORKING MEMORY 340 • THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE 341 • THE PHONOLOGICAL
LOOP 341 • THE VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD 342 • THE EPISODIC BUFFER 342 • CAPACITY OF
WORKING MEMORY 342 • THE DURATION AND CONTENTS OF WORKING MEMORY 342
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information in Working Memory 343
TWO (OR THREE) KINDS OF COGNITIVE LOAD 343 • COGNITIVE LOAD: LESSONS FOR
TEACHERS 343 • RETAINING INFORMATION IN WORKING MEMORY 344 • LEVELS OF PROCESSING
THEORY 345 • FORGETTING 345
Individual Differences in Working Memory 346
DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES 346 • INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 346
Is Working Memory Really Separate? 347
Module 25 Summary 347
Long-Term Memory 349
Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory 349
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories 349
PROPOSITIONS AND PROPOSITIONAL NETWORKS 349 • IMAGES 350 • TWO ARE BETTER
THAN ONE: WORDS AND IMAGES 350 • CONCEPTS 351 • PROTOTYPES, EXEMPLARS, AND
THEORY-BASED CATEGORIES 351 • TEACHING CONCEPTS 352 • SCHEMAS 352 • EPISODIC
MEMORY 354
GUIDELINES: Interviewing Young Students and Eyewitness Testimony 355
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories 355
Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory 356
SPREADING ACTIVATION 356 • RECONSTRUCTION 357 • FORGETTING AND LONG-TERM
MEMORY 357
Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory 357
Module 26 Summary 358
Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications 359
Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections 359
ELABORATION 359 • ORGANIZATION 360 • IMAGERY 360
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Organizing Learning 360
CONTEXT 361 • DESIRABLE DIFFICULTY 361 • EFFECTIVE PRACTICE 361
Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful 362
MNEMONICS 363
If You Have to Memorize . . . 364
Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge 365
Development of Procedural Knowledge 365
AUTOMATED BASIC SKILLS 365 • DOMAIN-SPECIFIC STRATEGIES 366
GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and Remember 366
Module 27 Summary 368
Key Terms 368
Connect and Extend to Licensure 369
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do? 370
Cluster 9
Complex Cognitive Processes 372
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do? 372
Overview and Objectives 373
Metacognition 375
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 375
Individual Differences in Metacognition 375
Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 376
METACOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR YOUNGER STUDENTS 376 • METACOGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT FOR SECONDARY AND COLLEGE STUDENTS (LIKE YOU) 377
Learning Strategies 379
Being Strategic About Learning 380
DECIDING WHAT IS IMPORTANT 380 • SUMMARIES 381 • UNDERLINING AND
HIGHLIGHTING 381 • TAKING NOTES 382
Visual Tools for Organizing 383
Retrieval Practice: Powerful but Underused 385
Reading Strategies 385
Applying Learning Strategies 386
APPROPRIATE TASKS 386 • VALUING LEARNING 386 • EFFORT AND EFFICACY 387
Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn 387
Module 28 Summary 387
Problem Solving 388
Identifying: Problem Finding 389
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 390
FOCUSING ATTENTION ON WHAT IS RELEVANT 390 • UNDERSTANDING THE
WORDS 390 • UNDERSTANDING THE WHOLE PROBLEM 390 • TRANSLATION AND
SCHEMA TRAINING: DIRECT INSTRUCTION IN REPRESENTING PROBLEMS 392 • TRANSLATION
AND SCHEMA TRAINING: WORKED EXAMPLES 392 • WORKED EXAMPLES AND EMBODIED
COGNITION 393 • THE RESULTS OF PROBLEM REPRESENTATION 395
Searching for Possible Solution Strategies 395
ALGORITHMS 395 • HEURISTICS 395
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 396
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 397
SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS 397
GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving 398
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 399
KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT 399 • MEMORY FOR PATTERNS AND
ORGANIZATION 399 • PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE 399 • PLANNING AND MONITORING 400
GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student 400
Module 29 Summary 402
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 403
What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder’s Model 403
Teaching Critical Thinking 403
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS 404
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and
Problem Solving? 405
Thinking Critically About Online Sources 405
Argumentation 406
TWO STYLES OF ARGUMENTATION 407 • LESSONS FOR TEACHERS 408
Teaching for Transfer 408
The Many Views of Transfer 408
Teaching for Positive Transfer 409
WHAT IS WORTH LEARNING? 410 • LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: SUPPORTING
TRANSFER 410 • STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES 410
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer 411
Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge 412
What Is Robust Knowledge? 412
Teaching for Robust Knowledge 412
PRACTICE 412 • WORKED EXAMPLES 412 • ANALOGIES 413 • INTEGRATING MULTIPLE
TEXTS 413 • SELF-EXPLANATIONS 413
Module 30 Summary 413
Key Terms 415
Connect and Extend to Licensure 415
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do? 416
Cluster 10
Constructivism and Interactive Learning 418
Teachers’ Casebook—Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching:
What Would You Do? 418
Overview and Objectives 419
Cognitive and Social Constructivism 420
Constructivist Views of Learning 421
COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM 421 • SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM 422
How Is Knowledge Constructed? 423
Knowledge: Situated or General? 423
Common Elements of Learner-Centered Teaching 424
COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS 425 • SOCIAL NEGOTIATION 425 • MULTIPLE
PERSPECTIVES AND REPRESENTATIONS OF CONTENT 425 • SELF-AWARENESS AND REFLECTION
ABOUT THE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 426 • STUDENT OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING 427
Designing Constructivist Learning Environments 427
Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom 427
SCAFFOLDING 427 • ADVANCE ORGANIZERS 429 • FACILITATING THROUGH ASKING AND
ANSWERING DEEP QUESTIONS 429
GUIDELINES: Facilitating Deep Questioning 430
Inquiry-Based Learning 431
EXAMPLES OF INQUIRY 431 • PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING 432 • DOES INQUIRY-BASED
INSTRUCTION IMPROVE LEARNING? 433
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Teaching Approaches to Support Inquiry- and
Problem-Based Learning Effective? 434
BEING SMART ABOUT INQUIRY LEARNING 435
Cognitive Apprenticeships 436
Module 31 Summary 437
Collaboration and Cooperation 438
Learning in Groups 439
GOALS OF GROUP WORK 439 • WHAT CAN GO WRONG: MISUSES OF GROUP LEARNING 439
Learning Through Cooperation 440
EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING 442 • TEACHER’S ROLE IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING 442
Designing Cooperative Learning Tasks 442
HIGHLY STRUCTURED, REVIEW, AND SKILL-BUILDING TASKS 442 • ILL-STRUCTURED,
CONCEPTUAL, AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS 443 • SOCIAL SKILLS AND COMMUNICATION
TASKS 443 • GIVING AND RECEIVING EXPLANATIONS 444
Setting Up Cooperative Groups 444
GROUP COMPOSITION 444 • ASSIGNING ROLES 445
Examples of Cooperative Learning Techniques 446
RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING 446 • JIGSAW 446 • CONSTRUCTIVE/STRUCTURED
CONTROVERSIES 447
Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely 448
GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning 449
Module 32 Summary 450
Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments 451
Technology and Learning 451
Technology-Rich Environments 452
MOBILE LEARNING 452 • VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS 453 • IMMERSIVE
VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS 454 • GAMES 455
Computational Thinking and Coding 456
Media Use, Digital Citizenship, and Media Literacy 457
DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE ACTIVITIES 457 • DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP 458 •
CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY 459
GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy 459
Blending and Flipping: Technology-Powered Pedagogy 460
Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 461
Module 33 Summary 462
Key Terms 462
Connect and Extend to Licensure 463
Teachers’ Casebook—Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive
Teaching: What Would They Do? 463
Cluster 11
Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 466
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do? 466
Overview and Objectives 467
Social Cognitive Theory 469
A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 469
Beyond Behaviorism 470
Triadic Reciprocal Causality 470
Modeling: Learning by Observing Others 472
Elements of Observational Learning 473
ATTENTION 473 • RETENTION 473 • PRODUCTION 473 • MOTIVATION AND
REINFORCEMENT 474
Observational Learning in Teaching 474
DIRECTING ATTENTION 474 • FINE-TUNING ALREADY-LEARNED BEHAVIORS 475 •
STRENGTHENING OR WEAKENING INHIBITIONS 475 • TEACHING NEW BEHAVIORS 475 •
AROUSING EMOTION 475
GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning 476
Agency and Self-Efficacy 477
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 477
Sources of Self-Efficacy 478
Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 480
GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Efficacy 481
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy 482
Module 34 Summary 483
Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will 484
How Does Self-Regulation Develop? 485
KNOWLEDGE 485 • MOTIVATION 486 • VOLITION 486
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful? 488
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN SELF-REGULATION 490
A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning 490
Reaching Every Student: Technology and Self-Regulation 492
Self-Regulation of Emotions 493
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING 493 • TEACHER STRESS AND SELF-REGULATION 494
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 495
Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning 496
Complex Tasks 496
Agency and Control 497
Self-Management 498
Self-Evaluation 499
Collaboration 500
Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning 500
Module 35 Summary 502
Key Terms 503
Connect and Extend to Licensure 503
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do? 504
Cluster 12
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 506
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would
You Do? 506
Overview and Objectives 507
What Is Motivation? 509
Meeting Some Students 510
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 511
What You Already Know About Motivation 512
Needs and Self-Determination 513
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 513
Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness 515
SELF-DETERMINATION IN THE CLASSROOM 515 • NEED-SUPPORTIVE VERSUS
NEED-THWARTING CLASSROOMS 516
GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 517
SUPPORTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AS MOTIVATORS 518
Needs: Lessons for Teachers 518
Module 36 Summary 518
Goals and Goal Orientations 519
Goal Setting: What Am I Trying to Do? 520
Making Goals Work: Feedback, Framing, and Commitment 521
Goal Orientations: Why Am I Trying to Do This? 522
WAIT—ARE PERFORMANCE GOALS ALWAYS BAD? 523 • WORK-AVOIDANCE GOALS 524 •
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON GOAL ORIENTATION 524
Social Goals 524
Goals: Lessons for Teachers 525
Expectancies, Values, and Costs 525
Expectancy for Success 526
Task Value 526
Perceived Cost 527
Expectancy, Value, and Cost: Lessons for Teachers 527
Attributions and Beliefs About Ability 527
Attributions in the Classroom 528
Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions 529
Mindsets About Ability 530
Ability Mindsets in the Classroom 530
Mindsets About Failure 531
Attributions and Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers 532
GUIDELINES: Encouraging a Healthy Mindset 533
Module 37 Summary 533
How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions 535
Tapping Interests 535
TWO KINDS OF INTERESTS 535 • CATCHING AND HOLDING INTERESTS 536
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 536
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? 537
GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity 538
Flow 539
Emotions 540
EMOTION AND THE BODY 540 • ACHIEVEMENT EMOTIONS 541 • EMOTIONS IN THE CLASSROOM 542
Anxiety in the Classroom 542
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Negative Emotions 543
GUIDELINES: Coping With Test Anxiety 544
Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers 545
Module 38 Summary 545
Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn 546
Why Am I Learning This? Is It Valuable, Useful, Relevant? 547
CREATING AUTHENTIC TASKS 547 • INCREASING PERCEIVED RELEVANCE AND UTILITY 547
Will I Enjoy This? 548
ENHANCING CURIOSITY, INTEREST, AND INTRINSIC VALUE 548 • SUPPORTING AUTONOMY 548
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations 549
What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Providing Structures That Support Progress 549
Do I Belong in This Classroom? Creating Inclusive Opportunities 550
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Supporting the Sociocultural
Foundations of Motivation 551
Module 39 Summary 552
Key Terms 552
Connect and Extend to Licensure 553
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would
They Do? 553
PART IV TEACHING AND ASSESSING
Cluster 13
Creating Supportive Learning Environments 556
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do? 556
Overview and Objectives 556
The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization 558
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 559
The Basic Goals: Access, Time, Relationships, and Self-Management 560
ACCESS TO LEARNING 560 • MORE TIME FOR LEARNING 560 • MANAGEMENT MEANS
RELATIONSHIPS 561 • MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT 562
Creating a Positive Learning Environment 562
Relevant Research Results 563
Routines and Rules Required: In-Person Learning 563
ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES 563
GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines for In-Person Learning 564
RULES 565 • RULES FOR IN-PERSON TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 565 •
RULES FOR IN-PERSON TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOL 565 • CONSEQUENCES 566 •
WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES? 566
Routines and Rules Required: Remote Learning 567
GUIDELINES: Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning 567
Planning Spaces for Learning 570
PERSONAL TERRITORIES AND SEATING ARRANGEMENTS 570 • INTEREST AREAS 570
GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces 571
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 572
EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS 572 • EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR
SECONDARY STUDENTS 573
Module 40 Summary 573
Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 574
Encouraging Engagement 574
GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged 575
Prevention Is the Best Medicine 575
WITHITNESS 576 • OVERLAPPING AND GROUP FOCUS 576 • MOVEMENT
MANAGEMENT 576 • STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION 576
Caring Relationships: Connections with School 578
TEACHER CONNECTIONS 578 • SCHOOL CONNECTIONS AND BELONGING 579 • CREATING
COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS 579
GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships 580
Module 41 Summary 581
Dealing with Discipline Problems 582
Stopping Problems Quickly 582
If You Impose Penalties 583
GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties 584
What About School Suspensions and Zero Tolerance? 585
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 585
Reaching Every Student: Restorative Justice 586
Teacher-Imposed Penalties Versus Student Responsibility 587
Bullying and Cyberbullying 588
VICTIMS 588 • WHY DO STUDENTS BULLY? 590 • WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO? BULLYING AND
TEASING 590 • CYBERBULLYING 592
Special Challenges with High School Students 593
GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 593
The Need for Communication 594
Message Sent—Message Received 594
Empathetic Listening 595
When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and
Problem Solving 596
I-MESSAGES 596 • ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE 596 • CONFRONTATIONS AND
NEGOTIATIONS 597
Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 597
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Classroom Organization
and Management 600
Module 42 Summary 601
Key Terms 602
Connect and Extend to Licensure 603
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do? 603
Cluster 14
Teaching Every Student 606
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do? 606
Overview and Objectives 607
Research on Teaching 608
Characteristics of Effective Teachers 609
CLARITY AND ORGANIZATION 609 • ENTHUSIASM AND WARMTH 609
Knowledge for Teaching 610
Teacher Expectations 610
TWO KINDS OF EXPECTATION EFFECTS 611 • SOURCES OF EXPECTATIONS 611 •
DO TEACHERS’ EXPECTATIONS REALLY AFFECT STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT? 612 •
LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: COMMUNICATING APPROPRIATE EXPECTATIONS 613
GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations 614
The Goal: Ambitious Teaching 615
The First Step: Planning 615
Research on Planning 616
Learning Goals 616
AN EXAMPLE OF STATE-LEVEL GOALS: THE COMMON CORE 617 • CLASSROOMS GOALS FOR
LEARNING 618
Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies 618
THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN 619 • THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN 620 • THE PSYCHOMOTOR
DOMAIN 620
The Cognitive Demands of Learning Objectives: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge 620
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 620
GUIDELINES: Using Learning Objectives 621
Module 43 Summary 622
Teaching Approaches 624
Research on Teaching Strategies 624
Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction 624
ROSENSHINE’S SIX TEACHING FUNCTIONS 625 • WHY DOES DIRECT INSTRUCTION
WORK? 625 • EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION 625
GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction 626
Independent Work and Homework 627
INDEPENDENT WORK 627 • HOMEWORK 628
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework Valuable? 629
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Homework 630
Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback 631
KINDS OF QUESTIONS 632 • ASKING AUTHENTIC QUESTIONS 633 • FITTING THE
QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS—AND WAITING 633 • RESPONDING TO STUDENT
ANSWERS 634 • GROUP DISCUSSION AND QUALITY TALK 634
Lessons for Teachers: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 635
GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions 636
Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design 637
Differentiated Instruction 639
Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 639
THE PROBLEMS WITH ABILITY GROUPING 640 • FLEXIBLE GROUPING 640
GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping 640
Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms 641
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 641
Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning 642
Module 44 Summary 643
Key Terms 645
Connect and Extend to Licensure 645
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do? 646
Cluster 15
Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 650
Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do? 650
Overview and Objectives 651
Basics of Assessment 653
Measurement and Assessment 653
FORMATIVE, INTERIM, AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT 654
Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity 654
RELIABILITY OF TEST SCORES 655 • VALIDITY 655 • ABSENCE OF BIAS 656
Classroom Assessment: Testing 657
Interpreting Any Test Score 657
NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS 658 • CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST
INTERPRETATIONS 658
Using the Tests from Textbooks 659
Selected-Response Testing 659
USING MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS 660 • WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 660
Constructed Responses: Essay Testing 660
GUIDELINES: Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items 661
CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS 662 • EVALUATING ESSAYS 663
Assessing Traditional Testing 663
Module 45 Summary 664
Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments 665
Informal Assessments 665
EXIT TICKETS 665 • JOURNALS 665 • INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS 666
Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios 666
PERFORMANCES 666 • PORTFOLIOS 668
Evaluating Portfolios and Performances 668
SCORING RUBRICS 668
GUIDELINES: Creating Portfolios 669
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 670
GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric 671
DIVERSITY AND BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT 671
Assessing Complex Thinking 671
Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers 672
Grading 673
Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Grading 673
Effects of Grading on Students 674
THE VALUE OF FAILING? 674 • RETENTION IN GRADE 675
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back? 676
Grades and Motivation 677
Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families 677
GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System 678
Module 46 Summary 680
Standardized Testing 681
Types of Scores 681
MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION 681 • THE
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 682 • PERCENTILE RANK SCORES 683 • GRADE-EQUIVALENT
SCORES 683 • STANDARD SCORES 683
Interpreting Standardized Test Reports 685
DISCUSSING TEST RESULTS WITH FAMILIES 687
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships: Conferences and Explaining Test Results 687
Accountability and High-Stakes Testing 688
MAKING DECISIONS 689 • WHAT DO TEACHERS THINK? 689 • DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS
WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING 689
New Directions: PARCC and SBAC 689
Using High-Stakes Testing Well: Lessons for Teachers 690
Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for
High-Stakes Tests 691
GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing 691
Teacher Accountability and Evaluation 693
VALUE-ADDED MODELS 693 • SO HOW SHOULD WE EVALUATE TEACHERS? 694 • A BROADER
APPROACH: MEASURES OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS 694
Module 47 Summary 695
Key Terms 696
Connect and Extend to Licensure 696
Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do? 697
Licensure Appendix A-1
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index N-1
Subject Index S-1