Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 16th Edition by Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan Derrickson

By

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 16th Edition

Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan Derrickson

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology

Contents

1 An Introduction to

the Human Body 1

1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined 2

1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems 3

1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism 8

1.4 Homeostasis 9

1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology 14

1.6 Aging and Homeostasis 21

1.7 Medical Imaging 22

Chapter Review 26 / Critical Thinking Questions 28 /

Answers to Figure Questions 28

2 The Chemical Level of

Organization 29

2.1 How Matter Is Organized 30

2.2 Chemical Bonds 34

2.3 Chemical Reactions 37

2.4 Inorganic Compounds and Solutions 40

2.5 Overview of Organic Compounds 44

2.6 Carbohydrates 45

2.7 Lipids 47

2.8 Proteins 51

2.9 Nucleic Acids 56

2.10 Adenosine Triphosphate 58

Chapter Review 59 / Critical Thinking Questions 61 /

Answers to Figure Questions 61

3 The Cellular Level of

Organization 63

3.1 Parts of a Cell 64

3.2 The Plasma Membrane 65

3.3 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 68

3.4 Cytoplasm 78

3.5 Nucleus 89

3.6 Protein Synthesis 93

3.7 Cell Division 96

3.8 Cellular Diversity 104

3.9 Aging and Cells 104

Chapter Review 107 / Critical Thinking Questions 110 /

Answers to Figure Questions 110

4 The Tissue Level of

Organization 111

4.1 Types of Tissues 112

4.2 Cell Junctions 113

4.3 Comparison Between Epithelial and Connective

Tissues 114

4.4 Epithelial Tissue 115

4.5 Connective Tissue 127

4.6 Membranes 139

4.7 Muscular Tissue 141

4.8 Nervous Tissue 143

4.9 Excitable Cells 143

4.10 Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis 144

4.11 Aging and Tissues 145

Chapter Review 146 / Critical Thinking Questions 148 /

Answers to Figure Questions 148

5 The Integumentary System 149

5.1 Structure of the Skin 150

5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 157

5.3 Types of Skin 163

5.4 Functions of the Skin 164

5.5 Maintaining Homeostasis: Skin Wound

Healing 165

5.6 Development of the Integumentary System 167

5.7 Aging and the Integumentary System 169

Chapter Review 175 / Critical Thinking Questions 176 /

Answers to Figure Questions 176

6 The Skeletal System: Bone

Tissue 177

6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System 178

6.2 Structure of Bone 178

6.3 Histology of Bone Tissue 180

6.4 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 184

6.5 Bone Formation 185

6.6 Fracture and Repair of Bone 192

6.7 Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis 195

6.8 Exercise and Bone Tissue 196

6.9 Aging and Bone Tissue 197

Chapter Review 199 / Critical Thinking Questions 200 /

Answers to Figure Questions 201

7 The Skeletal System: The Axial

Skeleton 202

7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 203

7.2 Types of Bones 205

7.3 Bone Surface Markings 205

7.4 Skull: An Overview 206

7.5 Cranial Cavity Bones 207

7.6 Facial Bones 216

7.7 Special Features of the Skull 218

7.8 Hyoid Bone 223

7.9 Vertebral Column 223

7.10 Vertebral Regions 226

7.11 Thorax 233

Chapter Review 239 / Critical Thinking Questions 240 /

Answers to Figure Questions 241

8 The Skeletal System: The

Appendicular Skeleton 242

8.1 Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle 243

8.2 Upper Limb (Extremity) 246

8.3 Pelvic (Hip) Girdle 251

8.4 Greater and Lesser Pelves 253

8.5 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 255

8.6 Lower Limb (Extremity) 255

8.7 Development of the Skeletal System 263

Chapter Review 267 / Critical Thinking Questions 268 /

Answers to Figure Questions 268

9 Joints 269

9.1 Joint Classification 270

9.2 Fibrous Joints 270

9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 272

9.4 Synovial Joints 272

9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial

Joints 276

9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 281

9.7 Factors Affecting Contact and Range of

Motion at Synovial Joints 284

9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 284

9.9 Temporomandibular Joint 287

9.10 Glenohumeral (Shoulder) Joint 288

9.11 Elbow Joint 292

9.12 Hip Joint 293

9.13 Knee Joint 295

9.14 Aging and Joints 298

9.15 Arthroplasty 299

Chapter Review 302 / Critical Thinking Questions 304 /

Answers to Figure Questions 304

10 Muscular Tissue 305

10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 306

10.2 Structure of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 307

10.3 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle

Fibers 316

10.4 Muscle Metabolism 325

10.5 Control of Muscle Tension 328

10.6 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 332

10.7 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 333

10.8 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 334

10.9 Smooth Muscle Tissue 335

10.10 Regeneration of Muscular Tissue 337

10.11 Development of Muscle 338

10.12 Aging and Muscular Tissue 339

Chapter Review 341 / Critical Thinking Questions 343 /

Answers to Figure Questions 343

11 The Muscular System 344

11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 345

11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 351

11.3 Overview of the Principal Skeletal Muscles 353

11.4 Muscles of the Head That Produce Facial

Expressions 353

11.5 Muscles of the Head That Move the Eyeballs

and Upper Eyelids 355

11.6 Muscles That Move the Mandible and Assist in

Mastication and Speech 359

11.7 Muscles of the Head That Move the Tongue and

Assist in Mastication and Speech 359

11.8 Muscles of the Anterior Neck That Assist in

Deglutition and Speech 362

11.9 Muscles of the Neck That Move the Head 364

11.10 Muscles of the Abdomen That Protect Abdominal

Viscera and Move the Vertebral Column 366

11.11 Muscles of the Thorax That Assist in

Breathing 369

11.12 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor That Support the Pelvic

Viscera and Function as Sphincters 372

11.13 Muscles of the Perineum 374

11.14 Muscles of the Thorax That Move the Pectoral

Girdle 375

11.15 Muscles of the Thorax and Shoulder That Move the

Humerus 378

11.16 Muscles of the Arm That Move the Radius and

Ulna 382

11.17 Muscles of the Forearm That Move the Wrist, Hand,

Thumb, and Digits 385

11.18 Muscles of the Palm That Move the Digits— Intrinsic

Muscles of the Hand 391

11.19 Muscles of the Neck and Back That Move the

Vertebral Column 394

11.20 Muscles of the Gluteal Region That Move the

Femur 398

11.21 Muscles of the Thigh That Move the Femur, Tibia,

and Fibula 404

11.22 Muscles of the Leg That Move the Foot and

Toes 406

11.23 Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot That Move the

Toes 411

Chapter Review 416 / Critical Thinking Questions 418 /

Answers to Figure Questions 418

12 Nervous Tissue 419

12.1 Overview of the Nervous System 420

12.2 Histology of Nervous Tissue 422

12.3 Electrical Signals in Neurons: An Overview 430

12.4 Resting Membrane Potential 434

12.5 Graded Potentials 436

12.6 Action Potentials 438

12.7 Signal Transmission at Synapses 444

12.8 Neurotransmitters 451

12.9 Neural Circuits 454

12.10 Regeneration and Repair of Nervous

Tissue 455

Chapter Review 458 / Critical Thinking Questions 460 /

Answers to Figure Questions 460

13 The Spinal Cord and Spinal

Nerves 461

13.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 462

13.2 Spinal Nerves 468

13.3 Cervical Plexus 471

13.4 Brachial Plexus 473

13.5 Lumbar Plexus 476

13.6 Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses 478

13.7 Spinal Cord Physiology 480

Chapter Review 490 / Critical Thinking Questions 491 /

Answers to Figure Questions 491

14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 493

14.1 Brain Organization, Protection, and Blood

Supply 494

14.2 Cerebrospinal Fluid 497

14.3 The Brainstem and Reticular Formation 502

14.4 The Cerebellum 507

14.5 The Diencephalon 509

14.6 The Cerebrum 512

14.7 Functional Organization of the Cerebral

Cortex 517

14.8 Cranial Nerves: An Overview 524

14.9 Olfactory (I) Nerve 524

14.10 Optic (II) Nerve 525

14.11 Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), and

Abducens (VI) Nerves 527

14.12 Trigeminal (V) Nerve 528

14.13 Facial (VII) Nerve 530

14.14 Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve 530

14.15 Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve 531

14.16 Vagus (X) Nerve 533

14.17 Accessory (XI) Nerve 535

14.18 Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve 535

14.19 Development of the Nervous System 536

14.20 Aging and the Nervous System 539

Chapter Review 542 / Critical Thinking Questions 545 /

Answers to Figure Questions 545

15 The Autonomic Nervous

System 546

15.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous

Systems 547

15.2 Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways 549

15.3 ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors 558

15.4 Physiology of the ANS 560

15.5 Integration and Control of Autonomic

Functions 563

Chapter Review 566 / Critical Thinking Questions 567 /

Answers to Figure Questions 568

16 Sensory, Motor, and Integrative

Systems 569

16.1 Sensation 570

16.2 Somatic Sensations 574

16.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways 580

16.4 Control of Body Movement 584

16.5 Integrative Functions of the

Cerebrum 592

Chapter Review 597 / Critical Thinking Questions 598 /

Answers to Figure Questions 599

17 The Special Senses 600

17.1 Olfaction: Sense of Smell 601

17.2 Gustation: Sense of Taste 604

17.3 Vision: An Overview 607

17.4 Accessory Structures of the Eye 608

17.5 Anatomy of the Eyeball 611

17.6 Physiology of Vision 616

17.7 Hearing 625

17.8 Equilibrium 634

17.9 Development of the Eyes and Ears 639

17.10 Aging and the Special Senses 642

Chapter Review 644 / Critical Thinking Questions 645 /

Answers to Figure Questions 645

18 The Endocrine System 647

18.1 Comparison of Control by the Nervous and

Endocrine Systems 648

18.2 Endocrine Glands 648

18.3 Hormone Activity 650

18.4 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 653

18.5 Control of Hormone Secretion 655

18.6 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 655

18.7 Thyroid Gland 665

18.8 Parathyroid Glands 669

18.9 Suprarenal (Adrenal) Glands 672

18.10 Pancreatic Islets 676

18.11 Ovaries and Testes 681

18.12 Pineal Gland and Thymus 681

18.13 Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs,

Eicosanoids, and Growth Factors 682

18.14 The Stress Response 684

18.15 Development of the Endocrine System 686

18.16 Aging and the Endocrine System 687

Chapter Review 692 / Critical Thinking Questions 695 /

Answers to Figure Questions 695

19 The Cardiovascular System: The

Blood 696

19.1 Functions and Properties of Blood 697

19.2 Formation of Blood Cells 701

19.3 Red Blood Cells 703

19.4 White Blood Cells 707

19.5 Platelets 710

19.6 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow

and Cord Blood 712

19.7 Hemostasis 713

19.8 Blood Groups and Blood Types 717

Chapter Review 724 / Critical Thinking Questions 726 /

Answers to Figure Questions 726

20 The Cardiovascular System:

The Heart 727

20.1 Anatomy of the Heart 728

20.2 Heart Valves and Circulation of Blood 735

20.3 Cardiac Muscle Tissue and the Cardiac

Conduction System 742

20.4 The Cardiac Cycle 748

20.5 Cardiac Output 752

20.6 Exercise and the Heart 756

20.7 Help for Failing Hearts 757

20.8 Development of the Heart 759

Chapter Review 768 / Critical Thinking Questions 769 /

Answers to Figure Questions 769

21 The Cardiovascular System: Blood

Vessels and Hemodynamics 771

21.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 772

21.2 Capillary Exchange 781

21.3 Hemodynamics: Factors Affecting

Blood Flow 784

21.4 Control of Blood Pressure and

Blood Flow 787

21.5 Checking Circulation 792

21.6 Shock and Homeostasis 793

21.7 Circulatory Routes: Systemic Circulation 796

21.8 The Aorta and Its Branches 798

21.9 Ascending Aorta 801

21.10 The Aortic Arch 802

21.11 Thoracic Aorta 806

21.12 Abdominal Aorta 809

21.13 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 814

21.14 Veins of the Systemic Circulation 817

21.15 Veins of the Head and Neck 819

21.16 Veins of the Upper Limbs 821

21.17 Veins of the Thorax 825

21.18 Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis 827

21.19 Veins of the Lower Limbs 829

21.20 Circulatory Routes: The Hepatic Portal

Circulation 833

21.21 Circulatory Routes: The Pulmonary

Circulation 834

21.22 Circulatory Routes: The Fetal Circulation 836

21.23 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 838

21.24 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 839

Chapter Review 842 / Critical Thinking Questions 844 /

Answers to Figure Questions 845

22 The Lymphoid (Lymphatic) System

and Immunity 846

22.1 The Concept of Immunity 847

22.2 Overview of the Lymphoid System 847

22.3 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 849

22.4 Lymphoid Organs and Tissues 851

22.5 Development of Lymphoid Tissues 858

22.6 Innate Immunity 859

22.7 Adaptive Immunity 864

22.8 Cell-Mediated Immunity 870

22.9 Antibody-Mediated Immunity 874

22.10 Self-Recognition and Self-Tolerance 879

22.11 Stress and Immunity 880

22.12 Aging and the Lymphoid System 881

Chapter Review 887 / Critical Thinking Questions 889 /

Answers to Figure Questions 889

23 The Respiratory System 891

23.1 Overview of the Respiratory System 892

23.2 The Upper Respiratory System 894

23.3 The Lower Respiratory System 897

23.4 Pulmonary Ventilation 912

23.5 Lung Volumes and Capacities 917

23.6 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 918

23.7 Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 922

23.8 Control of Breathing 927

23.9 Exercise and the Respiratory System 931

23.10 Development of the Respiratory System 932

23.11 Aging and the Respiratory System 933

Chapter Review 938 / Critical Thinking Questions 940 /

Answers to Figure Questions 940

24 The Digestive System 941

24.1 Overview of the Digestive System 942

24.2 Layers of the Digestive Canal 943

24.3 Neural Innervation of the Digestive Canal 945

24.4 Peritoneum 946

24.5 Mouth 948

24.6 Pharynx 955

24.7 Esophagus 955

24.8 Deglutition 956

24.9 Stomach 958

24.10 Pancreas 964

24.11 Liver and Gallbladder 966

24.12 Small Intestine 971

24.13 Large Intestine 983

24.14 Phases of Digestion 988

24.15 Development of the Digestive System 991

24.16 Aging and the Digestive System 991

Chapter Review 996 / Critical Thinking Questions 998 /

Answers to Figure Questions 998

25 Metabolism and Nutrition 1000

25.1 Metabolic Reactions 1001

25.2 Energy Transfer 1002

25.3 Carbohydrate Metabolism 1003

25.4 Lipid Metabolism 1013

25.5 Protein Metabolism 1017

25.6 Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads 1019

25.7 Metabolic Adaptations 1020

25.8 Energy Balance 1025

25.9 Regulation of Body Temperature 1029

25.10 Nutrition 1032

Chapter Review 1039 / Critical Thinking Questions 1041 /

Answers to Figure Questions 1041

26 The Urinary System 1042

26.1 Overview of the Urinary System 1043

26.2 Anatomy of the Kidneys 1044

26.3 The Nephron 1048

26.4 Overview of Renal Physiology 1053

26.5 Glomerular Filtration 1055

26.6 Tubular Reabsorption and Tubular

Secretion 1059

26.7 Production of Dilute and Concentrated

Urine 1067

26.8 Evaluation of Kidney Function 1072

26.9 Urine Transportation, Storage, and

Elimination 1075

26.10 Waste Management in Other Body Systems 1079

26.11 Development of the Urinary System 1079

26.12 Aging and the Urinary System 1080

Chapter Review 1084 / Critical Thinking Questions 1086 /

Answers to Figure Questions 1086

27 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid– Base

Homeostasis 1087

27.1 Fluid Compartments and Fluid Homeostasis 1088

27.2 Electrolytes in Body Fluids 1094

27.3 Acid– Base Balance 1098

27.4 Aging and Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid– Base

Homeostasis 1103

Chapter Review 1104 / Critical Thinking Questions 1105 /

Answers to Figure Questions 1105

28 The Genital (Reproductive)

Systems 1106

28.1 Male Genital (Reproductive) System 1107

28.2 Female Genital (Reproductive) System 1121

28.3 The Female Reproductive Cycle 1137

28.4 The Human Sexual Response 1143

28.5 Birth Control Methods and Abortion 1143

28.6 Development of the Genital Systems 1147

28.7 Aging and the Genital Systems 1149

Chapter Review 1156 / Critical Thinking Questions 1158 /

Answers to Figure Questions 1159

29 Development and Inheritance 1160

29.1 Overview of Development 1161

29.2 The First Two Weeks of the Embryonic

Period 1161

29.3 The Remaining Weeks of the Embryonic

Period 1169

29.4 Fetal Period 1177

29.5 Teratogens 1180

29.6 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 1181

29.7 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 1183

29.8 Exercise and Pregnancy 1186

29.9 Labor 1186

29.10 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth 1188

29.11 The Physiology of Lactation 1189

29.12 Inheritance 1191

Chapter Review 1198 / Critical Thinking Questions 1200 /

Answers to Figure Questions 1200

APPENDIX A Measurements A-1

APPENDIX B Periodic Table B-3

APPENDIX C Normal Values for Selected Blood

Tests C-4

APPENDIX D Normal Values for Selected Urine

Tests D-6

APPENDIX E Answers to Critical Thinking

Questions E-8

APPENDIX F Medical Eponyms F-14

GLOSSARY G-1

INDEX I-1

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