Consumer Behavior, Eighth Edition by Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters

By

Consumer Behavior, Eighth Edition

Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters

Consumer Behavior

Contents

About the Authors iv

Preface xiv

Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3

Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4

1-1 Defining Consumer Behavior 5

1-1a Consumer Behavior Involves Goods,

Services, Activities, Experiences, People,

Places, and Ideas 5

1-1b Consumer Behavior Involves More than Buying 5

1-1c Consumer Behavior Is a Dynamic Process 7

1-1d Consumer Behavior Can Involve Many People 7

1-1e Consumer Behavior Involves Many Decisions 7

1-1f Consumer Behavior Involves Emotions and Coping 11

1-2 What Affects Consumer Behavior? 11

1-2a The Psychological Core: Internal Consumer

Processes 11

1-2b The Process of Making Decisions 13

1-2c The Consumer’s Culture: External Processes 14

1-2d Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 14

1-3 Who Benefits from the Study of

Consumer Behavior? 15

1-3a Marketing Managers 15

1-3b Ethicists and Advocacy Groups 15

1-3c Public Policy Makers and Regulators 15

1-3d Academics 16

1-3e Consumers and Society 16

1-4 Making Business Decisions Based on

the Marketing Implications of Consumer

Behavior 16

1-4a Developing and Implementing Customer-

Oriented Strategy 16

1-4b Developing Products 17

1-4c Positioning 17

1-4d Making Promotion and Marketing

Communications Decisions 18

1-4e Making Pricing Decisions 19

1-4f Making Distribution Decisions 20

Summary 21

Endnotes 22

Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28

Consumer Behavior Research Methods 28

Surveys 28

Focus Groups 28

Interviews 30

Storytelling 30

Photography and Pictures 31

Diaries 31

Experiments 31

Field Experiments 32

Conjoint Analysis 32

Observations and Ethnographic Research 32

Purchase Panels 32

Database Marketing and Big Data 32

Netnography 33

Psychophysiological Reactions and Neuroscience 33

Types of Consumer Researchers 34

In-house Marketing Research Departments 34

External Marketing Research Firms 35

Advertising Agencies and Media Planning Firms 35

Syndicated Data Services 35

Retailers 36

Research Foundations and Trade Groups 36

Government 36

Consumer Organizations 36

Academics and Academic Research Centers 37

Ethical Issues in Consumer Research 37

The Positive Aspects of Consumer Research 37

The Negative Aspects of Consumer Research 37

Summary 38

Endnotes 38

Part 2 The Psychological Core 41

Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 42

2-1 Consumer Motivation and Its Effects 43

2-1a High-Effort Behavior 43

2-1b High-Effort Information Processing and

Decision-Making 43

2-2 What Determines Motivation? 44

2-2a Personal Relevance 45

2-2b Consistency with Self-Concept 45

2-2c Values 45

2-2d Needs 45

2-2e Goals 48

2-2f Goals and Emotions 51

2-2g Self-Control and Goal Conflict 53

2-2h Perceived Risk 55

2-2i Inconsistency with Attitudes 56

2-3 Consumer Ability: Resources to Act 56

2-3a Financial Resources 57

2-3b Cognitive Resources 57

2-3c Emotional Resources 57

2-3d Physical Resources 57

2-3e Social and Cultural Resources 57

2-3f Education and Age 58

2-4 Consumer Opportunity 58

2-4a Time 59

2-4b Distraction 59

2-4c Information Load 59

Summary 60

Endnotes 61

Chapter 3 Exposure, Attention, Perception, and Comprehension 66

3-1 Exposure and Consumer Behavior 67

3-1a Factors Influencing Exposure 68

3-1b Selective Exposure 68

3-2 Attention and Consumer Behavior 71

3-2a Characteristics of Attention 72

3-3 Perception and Consumer Behavior 75

3-3a Perceiving Through Vision 76

3-3b Perceiving Through Hearing 78

3-3c Perceiving Through Taste 78

3-3d Perceiving Through Smell 78

3-3e Perceiving Through Touch 79

3-3f Perceiving Through Posture and Balance 79

3-3g When Do We Perceive Stimuli? 81

3-4 Comprehension and Consumer Behavior 82

3-4a Source Identification 82

3-4b Message Comprehension 83

3-4c Consumer Inferences 84

Summary 88

Endnotes 88

Chapter 4 Prior Knowledge, Long-Term Memory,

and Retrieval (Remembering) 95

4-1 Prior Knowledge 96

4-1a Knowledge Content: Schemas and Scripts 96

4-1b Knowledge Structure 102

4-1c Knowledge Flexibility 105

4-1d Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge

Content and Structure 106

4-2 Prior Knowledge and

Long-Term Memory 107

4-2a Episodic Versus Semantic Memory 107

4-2b Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory,

and Processing Fluency 108

4-2c How Long-Term Memory Is Enhanced 108

4-3 Retrieval 110

4-3a Retrieval as a Marketing Goal 110

4-3b Recognition Versus Recall 110

4-3c Enhancing Retrieval 111

4-3d Retrieval Failures 113

4-3e Retrieval Errors 114

Summary 114

Endnotes 115

Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High-Effort 120

5-1 What Are Attitudes? 121

5-1a The Importance of Attitudes 121

5-1b The Characteristics of Attitudes 121

5-1c Forming and Changing Attitudes 121

5-2 The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes 123

5-2a Direct or Imagined Experience 123

5-2b Reasoning by Analogy or Category 123

5-2c Values-Driven Attitudes 124

5-2d Social Identity-Based Attitude Generation 124

5-2e Analytical Processes of Attitude Formation 124

5-3 How Cognitively Based Attitudes Are

Influenced 128

5-3a Communication Source 128

5-3b Media Effects 129

5-3c The Message 130

5-4 The Affective (Emotional) Foundations

of Attitudes 132

5-5 How Affectively Based Attitudes

Are Influenced 134

5-5a The Source 134

5-5b The Message 135

5-6 Attitude Toward the Ad 137

5-7 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 138

Summary 139

Endnotes 140

Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low-Effort 149

6-1 High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes to

Persuasion 150

6-2 Unconscious Influences on Attitudes

When Consumer Effort Is Low 150

6-2a Thin-Slice Judgments 150

6-2b Body Feedback 150

6-3 Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When

Consumer Effort Is Low 151

6-4 How Cognitive Attitudes Are Influenced 152

6-4a Communication Source 153

6-4b The Message 153

6-4c Message Context and Repetition 154

6-5 Affective Bases of Attitudes When

Consumer Effort Is Low 155

6-5a The Mere Exposure Effect 155

6-5b Classical and Evaluative Conditioning 156

6-5c Attitude Toward the Ad 157

6-5d Mood 158

6-6 How Affective Attitudes Are Influenced 159

6-6a Communication Source 159

6-6b The Message 161

Summary 165

Endnotes 166

Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 175

Chapter 7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 176

7-1 Problem Recognition 177

7-1a The Ideal State: Where We Want to Be 177

7-1b The Actual State: Where We Are Now 178

7-2 Internal Search: Searching for

Information from Memory 179

7-2a How Much Do We Engage in Internal

Search? 179

7-2b What Kind of Information Is Retrieved

from Internal Search? 179

7-2c Is Internal Search Always Accurate? 183

7-3 External Search: Searching for

Information from the Environment 184

7-3a Where Can We Search for Information? 185

7-3b How Much Do We Engage in External

Search? 188

7-3c What Kind of Information Is Acquired

in External Search? 192

7-3d Is External Search Always Accurate? 193

7-3e How Do We Engage in External Search? 193

Summary 195

Endnotes 195

Chapter 8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High-Effort 202

8-1 High-Effort Judgment Processes 203

8-1a Judgments of Likelihood and

Goodness/Badness 203

8-1b Mental and Emotional Accounting 204

8-1c Biases in Judgment Processes 204

8-2 High-Effort Decisions and High-Effort

Decision-Making Processes 206

8-2a Deciding Which Brands to Consider 206

8-2b Deciding Which Criteria Are Important

to the Choice 207

8-3 Deciding What Brand to Choose:

Thought-Based Decisions 210

8-3a Decisions Based on Brands 211

8-3b Decisions Based on Product Attributes 213

8-3c Decisions Based on Gains and Losses 214

8-4 Deciding What Brand to Choose:

High-Effort Feeling-Based Decisions 214

8-4a Appraisals and Feelings 215

8-4b Affective Forecasts and Choices 215

8-4c Imagery 216

8-5 Additional High-Effort Decisions 217

8-5a Decision Delay 217

8-5b Decision-Making When Alternatives

Cannot Be Compared 217

8-6 What Affects High-Effort Decisions? 218

8-6a Consumer Characteristics 218

8-6b Characteristics of the Decision 219

8-6c Group Context 221

Summary 222

Endnotes 223

Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low-Effort 231

9-1 Low-Effort Judgment Processes 232

9-1a The Representativeness Heuristic 232

9-1b The Availability Heuristic 232

9-2 Low-Effort Decision-Making Processes 233

9-2a Unconscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 233

9-2b Conscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 234

9-2c Using Simplifying Strategies When

Consumer Effort Is Low 234

9-3 Learning Choice Tactics 235

9-3a Reinforcement 235

9-3b Punishment 236

9-3c Repeat Purchase 236

9-3d Choice Tactics Depend on the Product 236

9-4 Low-Effort Thought-Based

Decision-Making 237

9-4a Performance as a Simplifying Strategy 237

9-4b Habit as a Simplifying Strategy 237

9-4c Brand Loyalty as a Simplifying Strategy 239

9-4d Price as a Simplifying Strategy 241

9-4e Normative Influences as a Simplifying

Strategy 244

9-5 Low-Effort Feeling-Based

Decision-Making 244

9-5a Feelings as a Simplifying Strategy 244

9-5b Brand Familiarity 245

9-5c Decision-Making Based on

Variety-Seeking Needs 246

9-5d Buying on Impulse 247

Summary 248

Endnotes 249

Chapter 10 Post-Decision Processes 257

10-1 Learning from Consumption Experience 258

10-1a How Learning From Consumption Unfolds 258

10-1b What Influences Consumer Learning? 259

10-2 How Consumers Make Satisfaction and

Dissatisfaction Judgments 262

10-2a Expectation Disconfirmation 263

10-2b Consumption Emotions 264

10-2c Coping with Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction 268

10-3 Consumer Responses to Dissatisfaction 269

10-3a Complaints 270

10-3b Consumer Responses to Recovery

Attempts 272

10-3c Responding by Negative Word of Mouth 272

10-4 Why Customer Satisfaction Is

Not Enough 273

10-4a Customer Retention 273

10-4b Product-Harm Crises 273

10-5 Disposition 275

10-5a Disposing of Meaningful Objects 276

10-5b Recycling 277

Summary 280

Endnotes 280

Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 289

Chapter 11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior 290

11-1 Sources of Influence 291

11-1a Marketers 291

11-1b Nonmarketing Sources 291

11-2 Tools of Influence 298

11-2a Offline Tools 298

11-2b Online Tools 298

11-2c Tools that Deliver Influence One-on-One

or One-on-Many 299

11-3 Types of Influence 299

11-3a Normative Influence 299

11-3b Informational Influence 302

11-3c Consumer Socialization: A Special Case of

Normative and Informational Influence 303

11-3d The Pervasive and Persuasive Influence

of Word-of-Mouth (WOM) 304

11-4 Extent of Influence 308

11-4a Given the Source 308

11-4b Given the Recipient 309

11-4c Given the Relationship Between the

Recipient and the Source 310

11-4d Given the Tool 310

Summary 311

Endnotes 312

Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 318

12-1 How Age, Period, and Cohort Influence

Consumer Behavior 319

12-1a Silent Generation 319

12-1b Baby Boomers 320

12-1c Generation X 323

12-1d Millennials/Generation Y 324

12.1e Zoomers/Generation Z 324

12.1f Generation Alpha 325

12-2 How Gender, Gender Identity, and Sexual

Orientation Affect Consumer Behavior 327

12-2a Sex Roles 327

12-2b Gender Differences in Consumer Behavior 328

12-2c Gender and Sexual Orientation 329

12-3 How Regional Influences Affect

Consumer Behavior 331

12-3a Regions Within the United States 331

12-3b Regions Across the World 332

12-4 How Ethnic and Religious Influences

Affect Consumer Behavior 333

12-4a Ethnic Groups Within the United States 334

12-4b Ethnic Groups Around the World 337

12-4c The Influence of Religion 338

Summary 339

Endnotes 339

Chapter 13 Household and Social Class Influences 349

13-1 How the Household Influences

Consumer Behavior 350

13-1a Types of Households 350

13-1b Households and Family Life Cycle 351

13-1c Changing Household Structure 351

13-2 Roles and Tasks That Household

Members Can Have 353

13-2a Roles of Partners and Spouses 355

13-2b Roles of Children 356

13-3 Social Class 358

13-3a Types of Social Class Systems 358

13-3b Social Class Influences 359

13-3c How Social Class Is Determined 360

13-3d How Social Class Changes Over Time 362

13-4 How Does Social Class Affect

Consumption? 363

13-4a Conspicuous Consumption and Voluntary

Simplicity 363

13-4b Status Symbols and Judging Others 363

13-4c Compensatory Consumption 364

13-4d The Meaning of Money 364

13-5 The Consumption Patterns

of Specific Social Classes 365

13-5a The Upper Class 365

13-5b The Middle Class 366

13-5c The Working Class 366

13-5d Consumers Experiencing Poverty

and Homelessness 367

Summary 369

Endnotes 369

Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 378

14-1 Values 379

14-1a Core Values That People Have 380

14-1b Values That Characterize Global

Consumer Culture 380

14-1c Why Values Change 385

14-1d Drivers of Values 386

14-1e How to Assess Values 389

14-2 Personality 391

14-2a The Big-Five Personality Traits 391

14-2b Specific Personality Traits That Influence

Consumer Behavior 393

14-2c Political Orientation 396

14-3 Lifestyles 397

14-3a Lifestyle Patterns and Trends 397

14-4 Psychographics: Combining Values,

Personality, and Lifestyles 400

14-4a VALStm 400

Summary 402

Endnotes 402

Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 411

Chapter 15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 412

15-1 Innovations 413

15-1a Defining an Innovation 413

15-1b Innovations Characterized by Degree of

Novelty 413

15-1c Innovations Characterized by Benefits

Offered 415

15-1d Innovations and Cocreation 415

15-1e The Consequences of Innovations 416

15-2 Resistance Versus Adoption 417

15-2a Whether Consumers Adopt an Innovation 417

15-2b How Consumers Adopt an Innovation 418

15-2c When Consumers Adopt Innovations 419

15-3 Diffusion 422

15-3a How Offerings Diffuse Through a Market 422

15-3b Factors Affecting the Shape of the

Diffusion Curve 422

15-3c How Diffusion Relates to the Product

Life Cycle 423

15-4 Influences on Adoption, Resistance,

and Diffusion 424

15-4a Characteristics of the Innovation 424

15-4b Uncertainty 426

15-4c Consumer Learning Requirements 427

15-4d Social Relevance 429

15-4e Legitimacy and Adaptability 430

15-4f Characteristics of the Social System 431

Summary 432

Endnotes 432

Chapter 16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 437

16-1 Symbolic Meanings and Their Functions 438

16-1a The Emblematic Function 438

16-1b The Role Acquisition Function 439

16-1c The Connectedness Function 442

16-1d The Expressiveness Function 443

16-1e Multiple Functions 443

16-1f Symbols and Self-Concept 444

16-2 Special Possessions 444

16-2a Types of Special Possessions 444

16-2b The Characteristics That Describe Special

Possessions 446

16-2c Why Some Products Are Special 446

16-2d Rituals Used with Special Possessions 446

16-3 Sacred Meaning 447

16-4 The Transfer of Symbolic Meaning

Through Gift Giving 449

16.4a The Gestation Stage 449

16.4b The Presentation Stage 450

16.4c The Reformulation Stage 451

16-5 Charitable giving 452

16.5a Who Gives to Charity 452

16-5b When People Give To Charity 452

Summary 453

Endnotes 454

Chapter 17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social Responsibility in a

Consumer Society 459

17-1 In Search of Balance 460

17-1a Self or Other Interest 460

17-1b Immediate or Long-Term Interest 461

17-1c “Dark Side” and “Bright Side” Outcomes 461

17-2 Marketing, Consumer Ethics, and

Controversial Consumer Behavior 461

17-2a Acquisition Controversies 462

17-2b Consumption Controversies 468

17-2c Disposition Controversies 473

17-3 Social Responsibility Issues in Marketing 474

17-3a Environmentally Conscious Behavior and

Ethical Sourcing 475

17-3b Community Involvement 477

17-4 How Can Consumers Counter

Controversial Marketing Practices? 478

Summary 479

Endnotes 479

Glossary 489

Name/Author Index 499

Product Index 523

Subject Index 527

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