Consumer Behavior, Eighth Edition
Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters
Contents
About the Authors iv
Preface xiv
Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3
Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4
1-1 Defining Consumer Behavior 5
1-1a Consumer Behavior Involves Goods,
Services, Activities, Experiences, People,
Places, and Ideas 5
1-1b Consumer Behavior Involves More than Buying 5
1-1c Consumer Behavior Is a Dynamic Process 7
1-1d Consumer Behavior Can Involve Many People 7
1-1e Consumer Behavior Involves Many Decisions 7
1-1f Consumer Behavior Involves Emotions and Coping 11
1-2 What Affects Consumer Behavior? 11
1-2a The Psychological Core: Internal Consumer
Processes 11
1-2b The Process of Making Decisions 13
1-2c The Consumer’s Culture: External Processes 14
1-2d Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 14
1-3 Who Benefits from the Study of
Consumer Behavior? 15
1-3a Marketing Managers 15
1-3b Ethicists and Advocacy Groups 15
1-3c Public Policy Makers and Regulators 15
1-3d Academics 16
1-3e Consumers and Society 16
1-4 Making Business Decisions Based on
the Marketing Implications of Consumer
Behavior 16
1-4a Developing and Implementing Customer-
Oriented Strategy 16
1-4b Developing Products 17
1-4c Positioning 17
1-4d Making Promotion and Marketing
Communications Decisions 18
1-4e Making Pricing Decisions 19
1-4f Making Distribution Decisions 20
Summary 21
Endnotes 22
Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28
Consumer Behavior Research Methods 28
Surveys 28
Focus Groups 28
Interviews 30
Storytelling 30
Photography and Pictures 31
Diaries 31
Experiments 31
Field Experiments 32
Conjoint Analysis 32
Observations and Ethnographic Research 32
Purchase Panels 32
Database Marketing and Big Data 32
Netnography 33
Psychophysiological Reactions and Neuroscience 33
Types of Consumer Researchers 34
In-house Marketing Research Departments 34
External Marketing Research Firms 35
Advertising Agencies and Media Planning Firms 35
Syndicated Data Services 35
Retailers 36
Research Foundations and Trade Groups 36
Government 36
Consumer Organizations 36
Academics and Academic Research Centers 37
Ethical Issues in Consumer Research 37
The Positive Aspects of Consumer Research 37
The Negative Aspects of Consumer Research 37
Summary 38
Endnotes 38
Part 2 The Psychological Core 41
Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 42
2-1 Consumer Motivation and Its Effects 43
2-1a High-Effort Behavior 43
2-1b High-Effort Information Processing and
Decision-Making 43
2-2 What Determines Motivation? 44
2-2a Personal Relevance 45
2-2b Consistency with Self-Concept 45
2-2c Values 45
2-2d Needs 45
2-2e Goals 48
2-2f Goals and Emotions 51
2-2g Self-Control and Goal Conflict 53
2-2h Perceived Risk 55
2-2i Inconsistency with Attitudes 56
2-3 Consumer Ability: Resources to Act 56
2-3a Financial Resources 57
2-3b Cognitive Resources 57
2-3c Emotional Resources 57
2-3d Physical Resources 57
2-3e Social and Cultural Resources 57
2-3f Education and Age 58
2-4 Consumer Opportunity 58
2-4a Time 59
2-4b Distraction 59
2-4c Information Load 59
Summary 60
Endnotes 61
Chapter 3 Exposure, Attention, Perception, and Comprehension 66
3-1 Exposure and Consumer Behavior 67
3-1a Factors Influencing Exposure 68
3-1b Selective Exposure 68
3-2 Attention and Consumer Behavior 71
3-2a Characteristics of Attention 72
3-3 Perception and Consumer Behavior 75
3-3a Perceiving Through Vision 76
3-3b Perceiving Through Hearing 78
3-3c Perceiving Through Taste 78
3-3d Perceiving Through Smell 78
3-3e Perceiving Through Touch 79
3-3f Perceiving Through Posture and Balance 79
3-3g When Do We Perceive Stimuli? 81
3-4 Comprehension and Consumer Behavior 82
3-4a Source Identification 82
3-4b Message Comprehension 83
3-4c Consumer Inferences 84
Summary 88
Endnotes 88
Chapter 4 Prior Knowledge, Long-Term Memory,
and Retrieval (Remembering) 95
4-1 Prior Knowledge 96
4-1a Knowledge Content: Schemas and Scripts 96
4-1b Knowledge Structure 102
4-1c Knowledge Flexibility 105
4-1d Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge
Content and Structure 106
4-2 Prior Knowledge and
Long-Term Memory 107
4-2a Episodic Versus Semantic Memory 107
4-2b Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory,
and Processing Fluency 108
4-2c How Long-Term Memory Is Enhanced 108
4-3 Retrieval 110
4-3a Retrieval as a Marketing Goal 110
4-3b Recognition Versus Recall 110
4-3c Enhancing Retrieval 111
4-3d Retrieval Failures 113
4-3e Retrieval Errors 114
Summary 114
Endnotes 115
Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High-Effort 120
5-1 What Are Attitudes? 121
5-1a The Importance of Attitudes 121
5-1b The Characteristics of Attitudes 121
5-1c Forming and Changing Attitudes 121
5-2 The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes 123
5-2a Direct or Imagined Experience 123
5-2b Reasoning by Analogy or Category 123
5-2c Values-Driven Attitudes 124
5-2d Social Identity-Based Attitude Generation 124
5-2e Analytical Processes of Attitude Formation 124
5-3 How Cognitively Based Attitudes Are
Influenced 128
5-3a Communication Source 128
5-3b Media Effects 129
5-3c The Message 130
5-4 The Affective (Emotional) Foundations
of Attitudes 132
5-5 How Affectively Based Attitudes
Are Influenced 134
5-5a The Source 134
5-5b The Message 135
5-6 Attitude Toward the Ad 137
5-7 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 138
Summary 139
Endnotes 140
Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low-Effort 149
6-1 High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes to
Persuasion 150
6-2 Unconscious Influences on Attitudes
When Consumer Effort Is Low 150
6-2a Thin-Slice Judgments 150
6-2b Body Feedback 150
6-3 Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When
Consumer Effort Is Low 151
6-4 How Cognitive Attitudes Are Influenced 152
6-4a Communication Source 153
6-4b The Message 153
6-4c Message Context and Repetition 154
6-5 Affective Bases of Attitudes When
Consumer Effort Is Low 155
6-5a The Mere Exposure Effect 155
6-5b Classical and Evaluative Conditioning 156
6-5c Attitude Toward the Ad 157
6-5d Mood 158
6-6 How Affective Attitudes Are Influenced 159
6-6a Communication Source 159
6-6b The Message 161
Summary 165
Endnotes 166
Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 175
Chapter 7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 176
7-1 Problem Recognition 177
7-1a The Ideal State: Where We Want to Be 177
7-1b The Actual State: Where We Are Now 178
7-2 Internal Search: Searching for
Information from Memory 179
7-2a How Much Do We Engage in Internal
Search? 179
7-2b What Kind of Information Is Retrieved
from Internal Search? 179
7-2c Is Internal Search Always Accurate? 183
7-3 External Search: Searching for
Information from the Environment 184
7-3a Where Can We Search for Information? 185
7-3b How Much Do We Engage in External
Search? 188
7-3c What Kind of Information Is Acquired
in External Search? 192
7-3d Is External Search Always Accurate? 193
7-3e How Do We Engage in External Search? 193
Summary 195
Endnotes 195
Chapter 8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High-Effort 202
8-1 High-Effort Judgment Processes 203
8-1a Judgments of Likelihood and
Goodness/Badness 203
8-1b Mental and Emotional Accounting 204
8-1c Biases in Judgment Processes 204
8-2 High-Effort Decisions and High-Effort
Decision-Making Processes 206
8-2a Deciding Which Brands to Consider 206
8-2b Deciding Which Criteria Are Important
to the Choice 207
8-3 Deciding What Brand to Choose:
Thought-Based Decisions 210
8-3a Decisions Based on Brands 211
8-3b Decisions Based on Product Attributes 213
8-3c Decisions Based on Gains and Losses 214
8-4 Deciding What Brand to Choose:
High-Effort Feeling-Based Decisions 214
8-4a Appraisals and Feelings 215
8-4b Affective Forecasts and Choices 215
8-4c Imagery 216
8-5 Additional High-Effort Decisions 217
8-5a Decision Delay 217
8-5b Decision-Making When Alternatives
Cannot Be Compared 217
8-6 What Affects High-Effort Decisions? 218
8-6a Consumer Characteristics 218
8-6b Characteristics of the Decision 219
8-6c Group Context 221
Summary 222
Endnotes 223
Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low-Effort 231
9-1 Low-Effort Judgment Processes 232
9-1a The Representativeness Heuristic 232
9-1b The Availability Heuristic 232
9-2 Low-Effort Decision-Making Processes 233
9-2a Unconscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 233
9-2b Conscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 234
9-2c Using Simplifying Strategies When
Consumer Effort Is Low 234
9-3 Learning Choice Tactics 235
9-3a Reinforcement 235
9-3b Punishment 236
9-3c Repeat Purchase 236
9-3d Choice Tactics Depend on the Product 236
9-4 Low-Effort Thought-Based
Decision-Making 237
9-4a Performance as a Simplifying Strategy 237
9-4b Habit as a Simplifying Strategy 237
9-4c Brand Loyalty as a Simplifying Strategy 239
9-4d Price as a Simplifying Strategy 241
9-4e Normative Influences as a Simplifying
Strategy 244
9-5 Low-Effort Feeling-Based
Decision-Making 244
9-5a Feelings as a Simplifying Strategy 244
9-5b Brand Familiarity 245
9-5c Decision-Making Based on
Variety-Seeking Needs 246
9-5d Buying on Impulse 247
Summary 248
Endnotes 249
Chapter 10 Post-Decision Processes 257
10-1 Learning from Consumption Experience 258
10-1a How Learning From Consumption Unfolds 258
10-1b What Influences Consumer Learning? 259
10-2 How Consumers Make Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction Judgments 262
10-2a Expectation Disconfirmation 263
10-2b Consumption Emotions 264
10-2c Coping with Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction 268
10-3 Consumer Responses to Dissatisfaction 269
10-3a Complaints 270
10-3b Consumer Responses to Recovery
Attempts 272
10-3c Responding by Negative Word of Mouth 272
10-4 Why Customer Satisfaction Is
Not Enough 273
10-4a Customer Retention 273
10-4b Product-Harm Crises 273
10-5 Disposition 275
10-5a Disposing of Meaningful Objects 276
10-5b Recycling 277
Summary 280
Endnotes 280
Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 289
Chapter 11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior 290
11-1 Sources of Influence 291
11-1a Marketers 291
11-1b Nonmarketing Sources 291
11-2 Tools of Influence 298
11-2a Offline Tools 298
11-2b Online Tools 298
11-2c Tools that Deliver Influence One-on-One
or One-on-Many 299
11-3 Types of Influence 299
11-3a Normative Influence 299
11-3b Informational Influence 302
11-3c Consumer Socialization: A Special Case of
Normative and Informational Influence 303
11-3d The Pervasive and Persuasive Influence
of Word-of-Mouth (WOM) 304
11-4 Extent of Influence 308
11-4a Given the Source 308
11-4b Given the Recipient 309
11-4c Given the Relationship Between the
Recipient and the Source 310
11-4d Given the Tool 310
Summary 311
Endnotes 312
Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 318
12-1 How Age, Period, and Cohort Influence
Consumer Behavior 319
12-1a Silent Generation 319
12-1b Baby Boomers 320
12-1c Generation X 323
12-1d Millennials/Generation Y 324
12.1e Zoomers/Generation Z 324
12.1f Generation Alpha 325
12-2 How Gender, Gender Identity, and Sexual
Orientation Affect Consumer Behavior 327
12-2a Sex Roles 327
12-2b Gender Differences in Consumer Behavior 328
12-2c Gender and Sexual Orientation 329
12-3 How Regional Influences Affect
Consumer Behavior 331
12-3a Regions Within the United States 331
12-3b Regions Across the World 332
12-4 How Ethnic and Religious Influences
Affect Consumer Behavior 333
12-4a Ethnic Groups Within the United States 334
12-4b Ethnic Groups Around the World 337
12-4c The Influence of Religion 338
Summary 339
Endnotes 339
Chapter 13 Household and Social Class Influences 349
13-1 How the Household Influences
Consumer Behavior 350
13-1a Types of Households 350
13-1b Households and Family Life Cycle 351
13-1c Changing Household Structure 351
13-2 Roles and Tasks That Household
Members Can Have 353
13-2a Roles of Partners and Spouses 355
13-2b Roles of Children 356
13-3 Social Class 358
13-3a Types of Social Class Systems 358
13-3b Social Class Influences 359
13-3c How Social Class Is Determined 360
13-3d How Social Class Changes Over Time 362
13-4 How Does Social Class Affect
Consumption? 363
13-4a Conspicuous Consumption and Voluntary
Simplicity 363
13-4b Status Symbols and Judging Others 363
13-4c Compensatory Consumption 364
13-4d The Meaning of Money 364
13-5 The Consumption Patterns
of Specific Social Classes 365
13-5a The Upper Class 365
13-5b The Middle Class 366
13-5c The Working Class 366
13-5d Consumers Experiencing Poverty
and Homelessness 367
Summary 369
Endnotes 369
Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 378
14-1 Values 379
14-1a Core Values That People Have 380
14-1b Values That Characterize Global
Consumer Culture 380
14-1c Why Values Change 385
14-1d Drivers of Values 386
14-1e How to Assess Values 389
14-2 Personality 391
14-2a The Big-Five Personality Traits 391
14-2b Specific Personality Traits That Influence
Consumer Behavior 393
14-2c Political Orientation 396
14-3 Lifestyles 397
14-3a Lifestyle Patterns and Trends 397
14-4 Psychographics: Combining Values,
Personality, and Lifestyles 400
14-4a VALStm 400
Summary 402
Endnotes 402
Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 411
Chapter 15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 412
15-1 Innovations 413
15-1a Defining an Innovation 413
15-1b Innovations Characterized by Degree of
Novelty 413
15-1c Innovations Characterized by Benefits
Offered 415
15-1d Innovations and Cocreation 415
15-1e The Consequences of Innovations 416
15-2 Resistance Versus Adoption 417
15-2a Whether Consumers Adopt an Innovation 417
15-2b How Consumers Adopt an Innovation 418
15-2c When Consumers Adopt Innovations 419
15-3 Diffusion 422
15-3a How Offerings Diffuse Through a Market 422
15-3b Factors Affecting the Shape of the
Diffusion Curve 422
15-3c How Diffusion Relates to the Product
Life Cycle 423
15-4 Influences on Adoption, Resistance,
and Diffusion 424
15-4a Characteristics of the Innovation 424
15-4b Uncertainty 426
15-4c Consumer Learning Requirements 427
15-4d Social Relevance 429
15-4e Legitimacy and Adaptability 430
15-4f Characteristics of the Social System 431
Summary 432
Endnotes 432
Chapter 16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 437
16-1 Symbolic Meanings and Their Functions 438
16-1a The Emblematic Function 438
16-1b The Role Acquisition Function 439
16-1c The Connectedness Function 442
16-1d The Expressiveness Function 443
16-1e Multiple Functions 443
16-1f Symbols and Self-Concept 444
16-2 Special Possessions 444
16-2a Types of Special Possessions 444
16-2b The Characteristics That Describe Special
Possessions 446
16-2c Why Some Products Are Special 446
16-2d Rituals Used with Special Possessions 446
16-3 Sacred Meaning 447
16-4 The Transfer of Symbolic Meaning
Through Gift Giving 449
16.4a The Gestation Stage 449
16.4b The Presentation Stage 450
16.4c The Reformulation Stage 451
16-5 Charitable giving 452
16.5a Who Gives to Charity 452
16-5b When People Give To Charity 452
Summary 453
Endnotes 454
Chapter 17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social Responsibility in a
Consumer Society 459
17-1 In Search of Balance 460
17-1a Self or Other Interest 460
17-1b Immediate or Long-Term Interest 461
17-1c “Dark Side” and “Bright Side” Outcomes 461
17-2 Marketing, Consumer Ethics, and
Controversial Consumer Behavior 461
17-2a Acquisition Controversies 462
17-2b Consumption Controversies 468
17-2c Disposition Controversies 473
17-3 Social Responsibility Issues in Marketing 474
17-3a Environmentally Conscious Behavior and
Ethical Sourcing 475
17-3b Community Involvement 477
17-4 How Can Consumers Counter
Controversial Marketing Practices? 478
Summary 479
Endnotes 479
Glossary 489
Name/Author Index 499
Product Index 523
Subject Index 527